Information is available as soon as possible. Types of information. The meaning of the term in various galuzahs is known

Multiplicity is not about individual differences. Based on the variability of organisms, there is a genetic diversity of forms, which, as a result of natural selection, are transformed into new subspecies and species. The variety of modifications is either phenotypic, mutational or genotypic.

TABLE Equivalent characteristics of the forms of mortality (T.L. Bogdanova. Biology. Knowledge and right. Handbook for followers to VNZ. M., 1991)

Forms of news	Reasons appeared	Significance	Apply it
Nespadkova modification (phenotypic)	A change in the minds of the middle class, as a result the body changes within the norm of reaction specified by the genotype	Adaptation - adaptation to the present minds of the middle, survival, preservation of offspring	White cabbage does not suit the cabbage in hot climates. Breed horses and cows, brought from the mountains, to become stunted
Mutation	Influx of external and internal mutagenic factors, resulting in changes in genes and chromosomes	Material for natural and piece selection, since mutations can be red, weak and erratic, dominant and recessive	The appearance of polyploid forms in a population of plants or in certain creatures (comas, fish) leads to their reproductive isolation and the creation of new species, canopies - microevolution.
Spadkova (genotypical) Kombinatna	It occurs spontaneously between populations during crossing, when new combinations of genes appear in the stock	Expansion of the population of new recessionary changes, which provides material for selection	The appearance of erysipelas when the white-flowered and red-flowered primroses are crossed. When white and gray rabbits are mated, black offspring may appear
Spadkova (genotypical) Spivvidnosna (correlative)	It appears as a result of the power of genes that not one, but two or more signs are poured into the formation	The consistency of mutually related signs, the integrity of the body as a system	The long-legged creatures scurry about for a long time. In table varieties of beetroot, the fermentation of root crops, petioles and leaf veins tends to change.

Modification intensity

Modification of diversity does not result in a change in the genotype, it is related to the reaction of this same genotype to a change in the current environment: in the best minds the maximum of capabilities that are in power for this genotype are revealed. Thus, the productivity of outbred animals in the minds of the dyed-in-the-wool world is advancing (milk yield, meat fattening). And here all individuals with the same genotype reflect their own minds (C. Darwin called this type of multiplicity songful multiplicity). However, another sign - the fat content of milk - is weakly sensitive to changing the minds of the middle class, and the color of the creature is an even stronger sign. Modification intensity begins to fluctuate at the boundaries. The level of variation of a sign in the body, between modifications of sensitivity, is called the reaction norm.

The rate of reaction is wide depending on such signs as milk yield, leaf size, fertilization of certain snowstorms; A high reaction rate is the fat content of milk, milk loss in chickens, the intensity of fertilization in chickens, etc.

The phenotype is formed as a result of the interaction of genotype and environmental factors. Phenotypic signs are not transmitted to fathers, and the norm of reaction, i.e., the nature of the reaction, changes in absent minds. In heterozygous organisms, changes in the minds of the middle can result in different manifestations of these signs.

Power of modification: 1) non-decay; 2) the group nature of changes; 3) correlation of changes in the singing factor of the midstream; 4) adaptability between different genotypes.

Genotypic diversity

Genotypic diversity is divided into mutation and combination. Mutations are called streak-like and persistent changes in units of recession - genes, which bring with them changes in recessionary signs. The term "mutation" predates the introduction by de Vries. Mutations inevitably result in changes to the genotype, which are lost in the offspring and are associated with the crossing and recombination of genes.

Classification by mutation. Mutations can be combined, groups can be classified according to the nature of their manifestation, their location, their level of guilt.

The nature of mutations is either dominant or recessive. Mutations often reduce life expectancy and fertility. Mutations that sharply reduce life expectancy, often or completely delay development, are called lethal, and those that interfere with life are called lethal. Mutations follow their culprit. The mutation that occurred in these cells does not affect the characteristics of this organism, but only manifests itself in the next generation. Such mutations are called generative. Whenever genes change in somatic cells, such mutations are detected in this organism and are passed on to offspring during natural reproduction. However, during spontaneous reproduction, the organism develops from cells or groups of cells that produce a gene that, when changed, mutates, mutations can be passed on to offspring. Such mutations are called somatic.

Mutations are classified according to the level of their origin. Identification of chromosomal and gene mutations. Before mutation there is also a change in the karyotype (change in the number of chromosomes). It is clear to what extent the roslins are divided into triploids (3p), tetraploids (4p), etc. There are more than 500 polyploids in the roslin (pulp beet, grapes, buckwheat, mint, radish, cibul, etc.). All the stench seems to be a great vegetative mass and carries great sovereign value.

The great diversity of polyploids is observed in the plant culture: since one output form in the haploid set is small with 9 chromosomes, then the lines of this species that are cultivated can produce 18, 36, 54 and up to 198 chromosomes. Polyploids are produced as a result of the infusion of high temperatures, ionizing radiation, and chemical substances (colchicine), which spin the spindle under the cell. In such plants, the gametes are diploid, and when mated with the haploid state cells of a partner, the zygote results in a triploid set of chromosomes (2n + n = 3n). Such triploids do not create the present day, they are fruitless, or high-yielding. Polyploid guys are creating today.

Heteroploidy is a change in the number of chromosomes, not a multiple of the haploid set. With this set of chromosomes, a client may have an increase in one, two, or three chromosomes (2n + 1; 2n + 2; 2n + 3) or changes in one chromosome (2n-1). For example, a person with Down syndrome has one chromosome on the 21st pair and the karyotype of such a person becomes 47 chromosomes. These other similar changes in numerical values in a person’s karyotype are accompanied by poor health, mental and physical disorders, decreased life expectancy, etc.

Chromosomal mutations are associated with changes in the structure of chromosomes. There are the following types of chromosome relocations: separation of different sections of a chromosome, sub-warning of adjacent fragments, rotation of a section of a chromosome by 180°, or addition of a section of a chromosome to another chromosome. Such a change causes disruption of the function of genes on the chromosome and loss of power in the body, and sometimes its death.

Gene mutations affect the structure of the gene itself and cause a change in the powers of the body (hemophilia, color blindness, albinism, congestion of the blood cells, etc.). Gene mutations occur in both somatic and state cells. They can be dominant or recessive. First symptoms appear both in homozygotes and i. in heterozygotes, others - only in homozygotes. In plants, somatic gene mutations that occur are preserved during vegetative propagation. Mutations in state cells subside during plant breeding and during state breeding of animals. Odni mutas is positive for organism, Inshi Baiduzhi, and third shkіdlivі, viclikayuchi abybabel to organism, an weakened yoga Zhittatnosti (set, Serpovidoklitinna anemia, hemophilia at the people).

When new varieties of plants and strains of microorganisms are developed, mutations are induced, which are individually influenced by these and other mutagenic factors (X-ray or ultraviolet radiation, chemical ini). Then we select the selected mutants, preserving the most productive ones. In our country, using these methods, a large number of promising varieties of plants have been obtained: non-lying wheat with a large ear, resistant to illness; high-yield tomatoes; The shopkeeper with the great boxes is the same.

Power of mutations:

1. Mutations occur in a rapto-like, streak-like manner.
2. Mutations are elusive, i.e. they are steadily transmitted from generation to generation.
3. Mutations are undirected - any locus can be mutated, causing changes in both insignificant and vitally important characters.
4. The same mutations themselves can occur again.
5. In their manifestation, mutations can be dominant or recessive.

Reality to change is one of the powers of the gene. The skin mutation is believed to be due to this reason, except for reasons unknown. Mutations are associated with changes in the environment. This is due to the fact that the influx of external factors can sharply move its strength.

Combinative diversity

The commercials of the viniki is combined in the result by the promoted by the homologous dilki of the homologous chromosomes in the process of meiosis, and the same is the yak of the unnecessary rosbizhny chromosomes at the meiose vipadovanniy under the scribble. Multiplicity may be caused not only by mutations, but by the addition of adjacent genes and chromosomes, a new combination of which, when reproduced, leads to a change in the characteristics and powers of the body. This type of hecticness is called combinative spasmodic heaviness. New combinations of genes emerge: 1) during crossing over, during prophase of the first meiotic subsection; 2) under the hour of independent separation of homologous chromosomes in anaphase of the first meiotic subsection; 3) during the independent separation of daughter chromosomes in anaphase of another meiotic subsection and 4) during the separation of different state cells. The addition of recombined genes in zygote can lead to the development of different breeds and varieties.

In selection, the law of homologous series of spasmodic sluggishness, formulated by the Radyansky teachings of M.I., is of great importance. Vavilov. We can say: in the middle of different species and canopies that are genetically close (that is, they may have the same approach), similar series of spasmodic weakness are guarded. This type of dryness has been revealed in many grains (rice, wheat, oats, millet, etc.), which have similar variations in the grain’s brewing and consistency, coldness and other properties. Knowing the nature of decline changes in some varieties, it is possible to transmit similar changes to native species and, infusing them with mutagens, induce similar changes in them, which will significantly alleviate the burden of valuable forms. There are many applications of homologous diversity in humans; for example, albinism (a defect in the synthesis of barberry cells) occurs in Europeans, blacks and Indians; among ssavts - in rodents, raptors, primates; short, dark-skinned people - pygmies - are found in the tropical forests of equatorial Africa, on the Philippine Islands and in the jungles of the Malacca Peninsula; actions of degenerative defects and laxity, powerful people, values and creatures. Such creatures are considered as a model for the implantation of similar defects in humans. For example, cataracts occur in cats, dogs, horses; hemophilia – in the mouse, diabetes – in the schur; natural deafness - in guinea pigs, mice, dogs; harelip - in a mouse, a dog, a pig or something. bud. These recessionary defects are a reconfirmation of the law of homologous series of recessional intensity M. I. Vavilova.

Table. Equal characteristics of the forms of sleeplessness (T.L. Bogdanova. Biology. The law and the right. Handbook for beginners to VNZ. M., 1991)

Characteristic	Modification intensity	Mutation frequency
Object of change	Phenotype at the boundaries of reaction norms	Genotype
Selecting factor	Change of minds in the middle	Change of minds of Dovkill
Calm down at signs	Don't shrink	decline
Diversity before chromosome changes	Don't give in	Recognized by chromosomal mutation
Flexibility to change DNA molecules	Don't give in	Let's know gene mutations
Significance for an individual	Moves either reduces living standards. productivity, adaptation	Korisny changes lead to victory in the fight for food, shkіdlivі - until death
Significant for appearance	Sprinkles visitation	Bring to the establishment of new populations, species either as a result of divergence
Role in evolution	Pristosuvannya organisms to the minds of the middle	Material for natural selection
Shape of emptiness	Pevna (group)	Insignificant (individual), combined
Ordering patterns	Statistical regularity variation series	Law of Homologous rows of sluggishness

Information(Information) - this is a tribute that we understand to accompany the navantazhennyam.

In this case, obviously, those who for someє danimi, for others Entirely possible information. Once again, you can tell exactly what needs to be done to make this and other data informative for the largest audience: they need to be protected with a substitute. The higher the volume, the more informative the information will be.

Input information- the one in which the system accepts dowkill. This information is called input information (part of the system).

Exit information(relative to the extreme middle) - the way the system appears to have an excessive middle.

Internal, internal system information(in relation to this system) - that which is saved, processed, reviewed in the middle of the system, updated only by subsystems of the system.

Information about the final result of the problem is:

output (at the stage of initial updating of this information);
crotch (at the cob stage until the completion of information updating);
the result (after updating the information and completing the update).

Information (subject to update time) is:

permanent (not changed at all during its updates);
changeable (changeable at the time of updating);
mixed - mentally-stationary (or mentally-changeable).
It is also possible to classify information using other symbols:
according to the stage of vicorization (primary, secondary);
in full (overdrawn, sufficient, insufficient);
exactly the same system (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic);
hundred elements of the system (static, dynamic);
hundred percent of the structure of the system (structural, practical);
in relation to system management (caring, recommending, transforming);
absolutely territories (federal, regional, municipal, which applies to a legal entity, which applies to an individual);
for accessibility (open or secretly accessible, closed or confidential);
according to the subject matter, the nature of the study (statistical, commercial, normative, preliminary, scientific, elementary, methodical, etc., mixed) and others.

Information comes from the appearance of documents, chairs, babies, texts, sound and light signals, electrical and nerve impulses, etc.

Main authorities of information (and information):

completeness (replete all necessary information);
relevance (necessity) and significance (visibility);
clarity (clarity as reported by my interpreter);
adequacy, accuracy, correctness of interpretation, reception and transmission;
interpretation and reasonableness of the interpreter of information;
reliability (as shown in the notifications);
vibrancy;
targeting;
confidentiality;
Information content and significance (shows that are displayed);
massness (stagnation to all manifestations);
coding and economy (coding, updating);
tightness and compactness;
pretentiousness and zestfulness;
accessibility (to the interpreter, acceptance);
value (conveys sufficient income to the resident).

Application of information: 812 rubles, 930 rubles, 944 rubles. More informative information: 812 rubles, 930 rubles, 944 rubles - prices for after-shin balm. Even more informative: 812 rubles, 930 rubles, 944 rubles - prices for after-shin balm "Dune", 100 ml. in Moscow.

Information- this is the sequence of information, knowledge that is updated (held, transmitted, recreated, compressed, registered) with the help of various symbols of the symbolic, figurative, gestural, sound, sensorimotor type.

Information is the data that is viewed from the understanding of its semantic essence.

The result is the following simple formula:

information = data + sense

Methods for snatching and sourcing information can be divided into three groups, which are sometimes not easily differentiated:

empirical methods and methods for extracting empirical information (empirical data);
theoretical methods and methods for extracting theoretical information (realistic theories);
Empirical-theoretical methods (mixed, empirical) and methods for extracting empirical-theoretical information.

Let us briefly characterize the empirical methods:

Caution - collection of primary information or empirical evidence about the system (from the system).
Upgrading - installation of legal information in the follow-up system and systems.
Vimir is a joke, a formulation of empirical facts.
The experiment is the purposeful re-creation of the investigational system(s) of identifying the authorities.

In addition to the classical forms of their implementation, forms such as training, interviews, testing and others are also being studied. Let us briefly characterize the empirical and theoretical methods.

Abstraction - the establishment of hidden powers on both sides of an object (or objects), the replacement of an object or a system or model. Abstraction in mathematics is understood in two senses: a) abstraction, abstraction - a method of investigating certain phenomena, objects, which allows us to see the main, most important for the investigation of power, sides If you avoid an object or a box, you should also ignore the other ones; b) abstraction - description, manifestation of an object (reality), obtained using an additional method of abstraction; It is especially important in information science to understand this as an abstraction of potential activity, which allows us to constructively investigate objects, systems with potential activity (so that they could be there was no restriction of resources); vikorist and abstraction of actual inconsistency (foundation of unconstructed, non-constructive multiplicities, systems and processes), as well as abstraction of abstraction (possibility of abstraction of any two letters, symbols of any alphabet that, objects, regardless of their place, appeared in words, constructions , although their information may not be recognized).
Analysis is the division of a system into subsystems to identify their interactions.
Decomposition is the division of a system into subsystems by saving their interconnections from points.
Synthesis is the connection of subsystems to a system by identifying their interactions.
Composition is the connection of subsystems to the system, saving their interconnections from the points.
Induction is the extraction of knowledge about the system and knowledge about the subsystems; Inductive thinking: recognizing effective solutions, situations and then problems that may arise.
Deduction - extracting knowledge about subsystems and knowledge about the system; Deductive thinking: identify the problem and then look for the situation in which you are facing.
Heuristics, a selection of heuristic procedures - extracting knowledge about the system from knowledge about the subsystems of the system and caution, evidence.
Modeling (simple modeling) and/or the use of accessories - obtaining knowledge about the object for an additional model and/or accessories; Modeling is based on the ability to see, describe and identify the most important factors and ignore others in a formal view.
The historical method is to search for knowledge about the system of roads of history and history, which in reality was either conceivable or possible (virtual).
The logical method is the method of searching for knowledge about the system of ways created by various subsystems, links and elements in the universe, in the information system.
Layout - extracting information from the layout of an object or system, etc. for additional presentation of structural, functional, organizational and technological subsystems in a simplified form, which saves information that is necessary for understanding the interactions and connections of these subsystems.
Actualization - removal from additional activation, initialization of the sense, etc. transfers from static (irrelevant) status to dynamic (current) status; In this case, all necessary connections between the (open) system and the external medium are to blame (they themselves update the system).
Visualization – extraction of information through the online and visual presentation of the updated system; visualization conveys the ability of the system to perform operations such as “drag”, “rotate”, “enlarge”, “change”, “view”, “add”, etc. (including all elements and subsystems of the system). This is a way of visually absorbing information.

In addition to the classical forms of implementation of theoretical-empirical methods, such forms as monitoring (security system and analysis of system conditions), business games and situations, expert assessments are often used information (expert evaluation), imitation (inheritance), verification (alignment with evidence) and the basics about learning) and other forms.

Let us briefly characterize the theoretical methods.

The similarity from the abstract to the concrete is the distillation of knowledge about the system on the basis of knowledge about its abstract manifestations in knowledge, in the world.
Idealization is the extraction of knowledge about a system or its subsystems through explicit design, submission in the universe of systems and/or subsystems that cannot be realized in reality.
Formalization - obtaining knowledge about the system with additional signs and formulas, that is. mov of piecework, for example, mov of mathematics (or mathematical, formal description, manifestation).
Axiomatization is the acquisition of knowledge about the system or the process with the help of specially formulated axioms and rules for deducing the system of axioms.
Virtualization is the acquisition of knowledge about the system of the creation of a particular middle ground, environment, situation (in which the system and/or the following subjects are to be tracked), which is really, without any middle ground, impossible to implement and and additional knowledge.

Information(from Lat. informatio, explanation, report, information) - information about something, regardless of the form of its submission.

Nina does not have a single meaning of information as a scientific term. From the looks of the fancy galoozes, the knowledge of this concept is described by its specific set of symbols. For example, the concept of “information” is basic in a computer science course, and it is impossible to express its meaning through other, more “simple” concepts (so, in geometry, for example, it is impossible to express the basic concepts of “point”, “line”, “area” ) in simple terms). p align="justify"> The place of the main, basic things to understand in any science may be explained on the butts or revealed by the way of their arrangement with the place of others to understand. The problem facing the concept of “information” is even more complex than that of other scientific concepts. This concept is widely used in various sciences (computer science, cybernetics, biology, physics, etc.), and in every science the concept of “information” is associated with various systems.

History of understanding

The word “information” is similar to Latvian. informatio, which in translation means clarification, clarification, awareness. The concept of information was already understood by ancient philosophers.

Before the start of the industrial revolution, the essential essence of information was lost to the prerogative of important philosophers. In the 20th century, cybernetics and computer science began to study nutritional theories of information.

Classification of information

Information can be divided into types based on different criteria:

By way to spriinyattya:

By submission form:

By I'm grateful:

By meanings:

Relevant – information that is valuable at the given moment.
Reliable - information, removed without confusion.
Reasonable - information expressed by me, clearly understood by the person to whom it is assigned.
Povna - information, sufficient acceptance of the correct decision and understanding.
Corrisna - the corrosiveness of the information is determined by the subject, who has taken the information carefully to the best of his ability.

By truth:

The meaning of the term in various galuzahs is known

Philosophy

The traditionalism of the subjective consistently dominated early philosophical information, such as categories, concepts, and the power of the material world. Information appears independently from our knowledge, and can be obtained from our friend only as a result of interaction: display, reading, perception of a signal, a stimulus. Information is immaterial, like the power of matter. Information is located in the following row: matter, space, hour, systemicity, function, etc. Information is the power of matter and beats its power (station and publication of mutual relations) and the number of ways of mutual relations.

From a material point of view, information is the order of directing objects of the material world. For example, the procedure for passing the letter on the arkush paper for the singing rules and written information. The order of passing different color dots on the paper's arch, following the simple rules and graphic information. The order of passing musical notes is musical information. The order of passage of genes in DNA is a burst of information. The order of battles in the EOM is computer information, etc., etc. For this information exchange to occur, the necessary and sufficient minds must be identified.

Required washes:

The presence of at least two different objects, material and intangible, in the world.
The visibility of the objects of the hidden power, which makes it possible to identify objects as carriers of information.
The presence in objects of a specific intensity, which allows objects to be separated from each other.
The presence of space, which allows you to determine the order of straightening of objects. For example, the expansion of written information on a paper is a specific power of the paper, which allows the letters of the letter to be expanded to the right and to the bottom.

There is only one sufficient mind:

The presence of a subject capable of recognizing information. This is human marriage, the marriage of creatures, robots, etc.

Various objects (letters, symbols, pictures, sounds, words, speech, notes, etc.) taken one at a time create the basis of information. Information will be provided to you by selecting from a basis copies of objects and rearranging these objects in the space in the designated order. The duration of information notification is calculated as the number of copies of objects in the basis and is then expressed as a whole number. It is necessary to separate the information from each other, which is in totality, so that we know what to put in the information, which is unknown to one It's dying.

From a mathematical point of view, information is the sequence of integer numbers as written in a vector. Numbers are the object number in the information base. The vector is called an invariant of information, the fragments of which lie due to the physical nature of the basis objects. The same information can be expressed in letters, words, propositions, files, pictures, notes, songs, video clips, or any combination of all the above names. No matter how we determine the information, it is the basis that changes, not the invariant.

In information

The subject of the science of computer science is the data itself: the methods of its creation, saving, processing and transmission. And the information itself is recorded in the data, and is used by the scientists of information systems, as well as by scientists of various sciences and activity galuzes: doctors click medical information I, geologist - geological, enterprise - commercial (including information from computer science, information from power supply, robots) with data).

Systemology

Working with information is connected with transformations and again confirms their material nature:

recording - the formation of the structure of matter and the modulation of flows through the interaction of the instrument with the wearer;
saving - stability of structure (quasi-statics) and modulation (quasi-dynamics);
reading (reading) - interaction of a probe (instrument, converter, detector) with a substrate or a flow of matter.

Systemology views information through connections with other substructures: I=S/F, where: I - information; S – systemicity of light life; F – functional link; M – matter; v – (v under the chair) sign of the great unity (systematicity, unity of substructures); R – space; T – Hour.

In physics

Objects of material light are in a constant state of change, which is characterized by the exchange of the object’s energy from sub-cells. The change of one object will always lead to the change of another object to an excessive degree. However, regardless of how the objects themselves have changed, it can be seen as the transmission of a signal from one object to another. Changing the status of an object before transmitting a signal is called registering a signal.

The same message (signal) is interpreted differently by different systems. For example, a consecutively long and two short sounds (and therefore symbolic encoding -..) signal in Morse code terminology is the letter D (or D), in BIOS terminology from the AWARD company - a video card malfunction.

In mathematics

In mathematics, information theory (mathematical linkage theory) is a branch of applied mathematics that defines the concept of information, its power and establishes boundary relationships for data transmission systems. The main sections of information theory are core coding (which compresses coding) and channel (transfer) coding. Mathematics is a large scientific discipline. She is creating a unified effort of Science.

The subject of mathematics is abstract objects: number, function, vector, non-personalities and others. In this case, most of them are introduced axiomatically (axiom), without any connection with other concepts and without any significance.

Information is not included in mathematics subjects. The word “information” is lived in mathematical terms - power information and mutual information, which lies before the abstract (mathematical) part of information theory. Prote, in the mathematical theory the concept of “information” is associated with abstract objects - variable quantities, while the modern theory of information views the concept much more broadly - as the power of material objects Ektiv.

The connection between the two new terms is beyond doubt. The very mathematical apparatus of linear numbers was developed by the author of information theory, Claude Shannon. He himself pays respect to the term “information” in a fundamental (non-reducible) way. Shannon's theory intuitively respects the fact that information has a place. Information replaces hidden insignificance and information entropy. A lot of information is available worldwide. However, it prevents the predecessors from mechanical transference to understand from this theory to other findings of science.

“The desire of the nobles to establish information theory in other areas of science does not amount to a trivial transfer of terms from one branch of science to another. This research is based on the trivial process of developing new hypotheses and their experimental verification.” K. Shannon.

In jurisprudence

The legal meaning of the concept of “information” is given in the federal law dated June 27, 2006 No. 149-FZ “On information, information technologies and information protection” (Article 2): “information is subject to information (information, data) regardless of the form of their submission."

Federal Law No. 149-FZ secures the rights to secure information and information security of citizens and organizations in EOM and in information systems, as well as the supply of information security of citizens of organizations, , spouses and powers.

Theoretically control

Theoretically, control (cybernetics), the subject of investigation is the basic laws of control, so that the development of control systems, information is called information provided by the system from external light during adaptive control Others (attached, self-saving control systems).

The founder of cybernetics, Norbert Wiener, spoke about information like this:

“Information is not matter and not energy, information is not information.” All the main important information, as I have given in many of my books, is as follows: Information is a place taken by us from the outside world in the process of reaching our new and our senses.

- N. Viner Cybernetics, or control and connections in creatures and machines; or Cybernetics and marriage

This idea of Wiener gives a direct reference to the objectivity of information, so that its existence in nature is independent of the knowledge of people.

The material system in cybernetics is perceived as non-personal objects, which can be exerted by powerful forces in different parts, and the skin part of them is defined as the parts of other objects of the system. In the nature of the system, there is no information, the system itself is the first code, or the device code. Thus, the skin-material system is a source of information.

Cybernetics defines subjective (semantic) information as a substitute for information. (Div. ibid.) Information is a characteristic of an object.

Disinformation

Disinformation (also known as disinformation) is one of the ways of manipulating information, such as deceiving someone by giving new or new information that is no longer needed. formats, either completely, or not in the required area, to comply with the context, to create a piece of information.

There is always only one meta-meta - the opponent is guilty of doing it in a way that is not necessary for the manipulator. The purpose of the object, against which disinformation is directed, can be forced to accept the required decision of the manipulator, or be encouraged to accept the decision that is not suitable for the manipulator. Ale in any case, the kintsev meta - tse action, as it will be lived in.

The world of information is great and rich. It is clear that there are a very large number of different types of classification of information and information processes.

Let's look at the main types of classification of information.

We are looking forward to seeing different types of information The sphere has a wine. Information that has been collected from inanimate nature is called elementary, in the world of creatures - biological, in human marriage – social. In nature (living and nonliving), information is carried by light, shadow, color, sounds and smells. As a result, the color, light and shade, as well as sounds and smells are changed aesthetic information. The order of natural aesthetic information as a result of the creative activity of people has given birth to another variety - create magic(artists, musicians, etc.).

In addition to aesthetic information, the couple creates semantic information as a result of knowledge of the laws of nature, prosperity and misery.

Divided the information into aesthetic and semantic intellectually. Whether any information is both aesthetic and semantic, in one case the aesthetic side can be important, and in the other, the semantic side.

Another criterion for the subdivision appears to be for the method of receiving information. Humans have five sensitive organs:

Zir; behind the eyes people separate the colors, take good information, to what extent i textual, і numerical, і graphic;

Hearing; Wow, help with squeezing sound information- Language, music, sounds, noise;

Sniff; behind the nose, people retrieve information about the smells of too much light ( Nyukhova);

Gusto; taste receptors give the ability to detect information about those objects of relish - bitter, sour, sweet, salty ( Smakova);

Dotik; With your fingertips (or just your skin), you can immediately see information about the temperature of an object - hot or cold, about the brightness of its surface - smooth or short ( tactile).

Behind the form there is a tribute Information is shared on textually, numerically, graphic, sound, combined.

Textual information is, for example, a text to a friend, the TV looks bad.

Examples of numerical information include the multiplication table, arithmetic table, and the equations for a hockey match.

Graphic information - little pictures, diagrams, chairs, photographs. This form of presenting information is accessible, as it immediately conveys the necessary image (model), and verbal and numeric imprints a clear creation of the image. At the same time, the graphic form of the submission does not provide detailed explanations about the information that is being transmitted. Therefore, it is most effective to use text, numbers and graphics (for example, under the hour of mastering the geometry of a vikoristic armchair (graphics) + explanatory text (text) + numerical layouts (numbers)).

Sound information is all sounds and their understanding that conveys us.

The combined (multimedia) form of presenting information in computing technology becomes the main one. Color graphics are combined in these systems with sound and text, with video images that collapse, and trivial images.

For the future meanings Share information on Masovu, specialі special officer. Mass information is intended for the population regardless of age, status, or gender. Special information is provided for various categories of specialists. Particular information is addressed to a limited number of individuals connected by family, friends and others.

Mass information can be divided into suspense-political, initially, popular science, aesthetic. Please share special information on Naukova, technical, virobnichu, managerial This scientific information emerges from the field of science as a result of the development of laws of natural nature, the suspenseful development and thought. Technical information is created in the process of tracking the development of mechanization and automation of human labor activity. Viral information comes from the field of manufacturing, production and production of industrial and agricultural products.

In its own way, scientific information is classified into areas of science ( mathematical, astronomical, philosophical, behind hugeі natural technical - according to the galuzy of the people's dominion ( machine building, making arrangements for the bathroom, workbench, transport, everyday life, rural dominion ta in), virobnycha – depending on the nature of the virobnichesk processes ( design, technologically advanced, planned and economical, operational, about advanced news ta in.).

Information hundred-year-old dovkilla(or up to the middle) there are three types: input, output and internal.

Input information(In relation to too much middle ground) - information that the system receives as too much middle ground.

Exit information(stosovno dovkіlla) – information that the system sees in dovkіll.

Internal, internal system information(as part of the system) – information that is saved, processed, and analyzed in the middle of the system, then. which is updated only by the subsystems of a given system. This is an idealized concept (especially from the perspective of the physics of liquid systems).

butt. A person receives, processes input information, say, data about the weather outside, and forms the appropriate output reaction - how warm it is to warm up. In this case, there is also internal information - genetically laid down or physiological information about a similar reaction, for example, about the frost resistance of a given person.

Information according to the final result of the problem boom:

weekend(on the beginning of updating this information);

crotch(from the beginning until the updating of information is completed);

resulting(After updating is completed).

butt. With a modern system of linear algebra, information about solution methods, average implementation, input data (devices, accuracy, etc.), dimensions of the system and other outputs, Formation about the complexity of the system of equals, numerical values of the root, etc. – resulting, information about the current state of the coefficients of the implementation of the Gauss scheme – intermediate.

Information through news with its updating boom:

peaceful(Does not change during its update);

changeable(changes depending on the hour of update);

mixed(Mentally-stationary or mental-changeable).

butt. For a given physical task, the range of an artillery shell's shell, the information about the vugilla of the shell of the armor can be changed, the information about the coarse softness of the projectile's posture - noya, and information about the coordinates of the mark is mental-postural.

It is also possible to classify information using other symbols:

According to the stage of vicorization (primary, secondary);

In fullness (superfluous, sufficient, insufficient);

According to the nature of the system (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic);

In relation to the elements of the system (static, dynamic);

In relation to the structure of the system (structural, external);

In relation to system management (careful, recommending, transforming, mixing);

access (open or privately accessible, closed or confidential, mixed);

In relation to the territory (federal, regional, local, to a legal entity, to a physical person, mixed);

According to the subject area, the nature of the study (statistical, commercial, normative, preliminary, scientific, elementary, methodical, mixed) and others.

Similar information.

Information - this is information about something

Understanding the types of information, transmission and processing, searching and saving information

Fire up the place

Burn up the place

Information is important

Information - this Any information that is received and transmitted is preserved in different ways. Information is the entire collection of information about the world, about all the processes that take place in someone, which can be absorbed by living organisms, electronic machines and other information systems.

- tse Significant information about anything, if the form of their presentation is also information, then the formatting function is consistent with its nature.

Information - this all those with whom our knowledge and appendage can be supplemented.

Information - this information about what is going on, regardless of the form of their presentation.

Information - this a mental product of any psychophysical organism, vibrating by it at the time of the creation of any special purpose, called the special purpose of information.

Information - this Vidomosti that people perceive that (or) special. devices for the reflection of facts of material and spiritual light in the process of communication.

Information - this tributes are organized in such a manner that they are meaningful to the person on their right.

Information - this the value that a person invests in the tribute on the basis of the household lands that are victorious for their tribute.

Information - this summary, explanation, report.

Information - this be it any data or information, whatever it may be to scold someone.

Information - this information about the objects and phenomena of the excessive middle class, their parameters, authorities and forces that receive information systems (living organisms, working machines, etc.) in the process of life and work.

The same information (article in a newspaper, publicity, letter, telegram, news, confession, chairlift, radio broadcast, etc.) can contain a wide range of information for different people - be sure to keep them in mind know them, depending on the level of reasonable knowledge and interest.

In cases where we talk about automated robots with information using any technical devices, you need to know how many symbols you need to know.

Basically, computer processing of data for information involves a sequence of symbolic symbols (letters, numbers, encoded graphic images and sounds, etc.), meaningless and presented to an intelligent computer you look. Each new symbol for this sequence of symbols increases the information required for reporting.

p align="justify"> The place of the main, basic things to understand in any science may be explained on the butts or revealed by the way of their arrangement with the place of others to understand. The problem facing the concept of “information” is even more complex than that of other scientific concepts. This concept is widely used in various sciences (computer science, cybernetics, biology, physics, etc.), and in every science the concept of “information” is associated with various systems.

Concepts of information

Modern science has two types of information:

Objective (primary) information - the power of material objects and phenomena (processes) gives rise to diversity of states, which appear to be mutually (fundamentally mutually) transmitted to others 'Eects are saved in that structure.

Subjective (semantic, semantic, secondary) information - semantic replacement of objective information about objects and processes of the material world, the formation of knowledge of people with the help of semantic images (words, image and noticing) and fixations on any material matter.

Everyday senses have information - information about the excessive light and processes that take place in it, which are received by humans or by a special device.

Nina does not have a single meaning of information as a scientific term. From the looks of the carved galuzes, this concept is described by its specific set of signs. Subject to the concept Before. Shannon, information is worthless, then. facts that can be revealed in a different way from a colleague to the point of removing insignificance, expanding his understanding of the object with interesting facts.

From the point of view of Gregory Beton, there is an elementary piece of information that is “indispensable power” or a real power for any larger system that compresses. Those substances that are absorbed are called “potential”, and those that are absorbed are called “active”. “Information is made up of unexpected aspects” (c) “If we take information from the need to remove information about activity.” According to computer science, information has a low fundamental value: novelty, relevance, reliability, objectivity, completeness, value and others. The science of logic deals with the analysis of information. The word “information” is similar to the Latin word informatio, which in translation means information, clarification, awareness. The concept of information was already understood by ancient philosophers.

Before the start of the industrial revolution, the essential essence of information was lost to the prerogative of important philosophers. At that time, the science of cybernetics began to look further into the nutrition of information theory.

Sometimes, in order to grasp the essence of any concept, carefully analyze the meaning of the word by which the concept is signified. Clarification of the internal form of the word and the study of the history of its life can shed unexpected light on its place, which is obscured by the basic “technological” origins of the word and the current connotations.

The word information entered Russian language in the Petrine era. First recorded in the “Spiritual Regulations” of 1721. at the meaning "podannya, understanding about sth.". (In European languages it was established earlier - around the 14th century)

Based on etymology, information can involve any significant change in form or, in other words, any materially recorded traces created by the interaction of objects or forces and intelligence huddle. Information, in this way, is a transformed form of energy. The information carried is a sign, and the way it is created is by illumination: identifying the meaning of the sign and the sequence of signs.

The meanings can be reconstructed according to the sign of the sign, which caused its guilt (in the case of “natural” and fleeting signs, such as, as evidenced by others), or knowledge (in the case of mental signs, powerful spheres of language). Another variety of signs become the body of human culture, which, with one meaning, is “the totality of information that is not transmitted in bursts.”

Information can contain information about facts or interpretation of facts (from the Latin interpretatio, interpretation, translation).

The living essence receives information from various organs sensitively and gives rise to thoughts and intuitions. Exchange of information between subjects and communication (from Lat. communicatio, inform, transfer, also in Latin communico, to communicate, to inform, connect).

From a practical point of view, information is always provided in the form of a notification. The information provided is linked to the notification message provided by the communication channel.

Returning to the Latin etymology of the word information, let's try to understand the nutritional meaning of what is given here in form.

It is obvious that, first of all, the singing sense, which, being initially formless and inexpressible, has no potential and may have “urges” to be absorbed and transmitted.

In a different way, to the human mind, what is moving is structurally and clearly. Thirdly, as a result of the fact that its members share the meaning and integrity of their vikors, there is a need for unity and functionality.

Information as an expression of a rational sense is knowledge that can be stored, transmitted and be the basis for the generation of other knowledge. Forms of knowledge conservation (historical memory) vary: from myths, chronicles and pyramids to libraries, museums and computer databases.

Information - information about the world, about the processes that take place in the world, which are absorbed by living organisms, ceramic machines and other information systems.

The word "information" is Latin. Over the course of a long life, its significance has seen evolutions, now expanding, now limiting its boundaries. First of all, under the word “information” there is little respect: “submission”, “understanding”, then “vidomosti”, “transmission of information”.

In recent years, people have believed that the primary (accepted) meaning of the word “information” is elastic, diffuse, and they gave it the following meaning: “the world of importance among the known.”

Information theory was inspired by everyday life and practice. This guilt is connected with Claude Shannon’s work “The Mathematical Theory of Links”, published in 1946. The fundamentals of information theory revolve around results, to the exclusion of many other things. Until the other half of the 20th century, the earth was buzzing with information that was transmitted, running along telephone and telegraph cables and radio channels. Later, electronic computing machines appeared - information processors. And at that time, the main tasks of information theory were to improve the efficiency of the functioning of communication systems. The complexity in the design and operation of features, systems and channels is due to the fact that it is not enough for the designer and engineer to determine the task from physical and energetic positions. From this point of view, the system can be both comprehensive and economical. It is also important, when creating transmission systems, to pay attention to the amount of information that passes through this system. Even the information can be carefully communicated and protected. І do with such calculations in a basic way: abstract from the sense of awareness, as seen from concreteness in arithmetic operations that are familiar to all of us (like folding two apples and three apples, moving on to folding numbers together: 2+3).

They said that they “totally ignored people’s evaluation of information.” To the successive series of 100 letters, for example, they attribute the greatest importance to information, without extinguishing respect for the fact that this information has a sense and, in its own way, a sense of practical stagnation. The Kalkisny approach is the most fragmented thread of information theory. It is obvious to what extent the totality of 100 letters - a phrase from 100 letters from a newspaper, Shakespeare's poem or Einstein's theorem - is exactly the same amount of information.

This amount of information is extremely useful and practical. This exactly represents the job of the engineer, who is responsible for transmitting all the information included in the telegram, regardless of the value of the information for the addressee. The channel is soulless. The transmission system has one important thing: to transmit the required amount of information in a single hour. How can we calculate the amount of information a particular informant has?

The assessment of the amount of information is based on the laws of the theory of reliability, more precisely, it is determined through the reliability of the topic. This made me understand. The information has value, providing information only if we know about the result of the procedure, which may be of an episodic nature, if the singing world is not satisfied. Please do not ignore any information you already know. Tobto. If, for example, someone calls you on the phone and says: “It is light during the day and dark at night,” then this kind of information will convey to you the mindlessness of explaining the obvious and what is known to everyone, and not something new, which is to say. Otherwise, for example, the result is a race on stripes. Who will come first? It’s important to recap here. The more information that informs us, the more random the results, the more valuable the information about the result, the more information. Information about the concept, which has only two possible results, contains one piece of information called a beat. The choice of information item is not random. It is knitted in the most extensive two-way way and encoded during transmission and processing. We would like to try, in a simplified way, to understand the hidden principle of the quantitative assessment of information, which is the outer stone of all information theory.

We already know that a lot of information lies in the credibility of these and other inheritances. As it seems, there are two equal results, which means that the consistency of the skin result is equal to 1/2. This is the certainty of getting “heads” or “tails” when a coin is tossed. Since the product produces three equal results, the skin sensitivity is equal to 1/3. Please note, the sum of the probability of all results will always be equal to one unit: any of all possible results will inevitably come. As you can imagine, this may result in uneven results. So, in a football match between strong and weak teams, the likelihood of victory for the strong team is high - for example, 4/5. The reliability of nothing is much less, for example 3/20. The severity of the infection is very low.

It turns out that the quantity of information is a world of change in the insignificance of the singing situation. Various amounts of information are transmitted by communication channels, and the amount of information that can pass through the channel can be greater than its capacity. And this means how much information passes through here in one hour. One of the heroes of Jules Verne’s novel “The Secret Island,” journalist Gideon Spillet, transmitted a chapter from the Bible by telephone, so that his competitors could not quickly reach him with a telephone call. And here the channel was full of attractions, and the amount of information reached zero, because the subscriber was transmitted directly to his account. Well, the channel was running idle, missing a lot of impulses, not attracting them in any way. As more information is generated due to the greater number of impulses, the channel capacity increases. Therefore, it is necessary to intelligently encode information, find economical, parsimonious transmission of information.

Information is “prosumed” reliably. In the telegraph, letters that are often condensed, concurrent letters, represent entire phrases with a shorter set of zeros and ones, and those that are condensed less often are represented by a longer one. Finally, if you change the value of the code word for characters that are often condensed, and increase for those that are rarely condensed, you talk about effective encoding of information. But in practice, it is often lost that the code that results from the most recent “scanning”, the code is simple and economical, you can create notifications through transitions, which unfortunately sometimes happen to the channels of communication: causing the sound in the phone, atmospheric disturbances radio, blurred or darkened images in the television station, delays during telegraph transmission. These have gone wrong, or, as the fakers call them, they are noisily attacking the information. And where there are the most powerful and, naturally, unacceptable disagreements.

In order to increase the reliability of the transmission and processing of information, it is necessary to use the required symbols - a kind of protection against problems. The stench - these are the symbols - does not carry an effective role in the knowledgeable, the stench is supernatural. From the point of view of information theory, all those who rob the language of barvisim, gnuchkim, richness in views, richness of plan, richness of meaning are supra-worldliness. How supernatural it is from such positions of the sheet of Aunt to Onegin! How many information superhumanities there are for a short and all-sensible message “I love you”! And as the information is accurate, the signs are clear to everyone who enters the subway today, where instead of the following phrases there are laconic symbolic signs indicating: Entrance, Exit .

It’s interesting to remember an anecdote told by the famous American scientist Benjamin Franklin about a captain who asked his friends to discuss a whiskey project. . One of the friends noticed that the words “for cooking” are meaningful - such fortune-telling will be useful for the buyer. Others in the know also use the word “sells,” since they realized that the dropper sells droplets, and does not give them away for free. The third thought that the words “droplet” and “to make droplets” were an unnecessary tautology, and the remaining words were thrown out. The fourth one has been dropped and the word “dropper” - the daubing of the droplets clearly states who John Thompson is. Declared, having chanted for the fifth time, that for the buyer it is absolutely better that the dropper is called John Thompson or otherwise, and having ordered to do without even a single note. With such rank, nothing was lost in Vivistsa except a drop of water. Naturally, if people only used codes of this kind, without any supermundaneity in their reports, then all “information forms” - books, evidence, statistics - would be extremely short. Ale would have been lost in resourcefulness and beauty.

Information can be divided into types based on different criteria: for the truth: The truth is the hibna;

for the method:

Visual – perceived by the visual organs;

Auditory – perceived by the organs of hearing;

Tactile – sensed by tactile receptors;

Smelling - sensed by smell receptors;

Smakova - absorbed by smack receptors.

for the form of tribute:

Text - conveyed as symbols, meanings and lexemes of language;

Numerical - as numbers and signs that signify mathematical operations;

Graphic - how to depict objects, graphics;

Zvukova – sleep or have a visual recording of the transfer of language lexemes in an auditory way.

for recognition:

Masova - to place trivial facts and operates with a set of understanding that is understandable to most of society;

Special - to place a specific set to understand, during the time of the day, the transfer of information is carried out, which may not be understood by the majority of society, but is necessary and understood within the framework of educational society other group, where this information is provided;

Secret - transferred to the high school stake through closed (stolen) channels;

Individuality (private) - a set of information about any individuality, initial social formation and types of social interactions in the middle of the population.

for the values:

Relevant - information is valuable at the moment;

Reliable – information, removed without confusion;

Intelligible - information expressed in my understanding to the person to whom it is assigned;

Povna - information sufficient to praise the correct decision and understanding;

Corrisna - the corrosiveness of the information is determined by the subject, who has taken the information carefully to the best of his ability.

The importance of information in different galuzahs is known

Theoretically, the information of our time is divided into many systems, methods, approaches, ideas. It is important to keep in mind that new ideas will be added to information theory today, new ideas will emerge. As proof of the correctness of one’s assumptions, let the smell suggest “alive”, that the character of science is developing, pointing out that the theory of information is rapidly and widely used in various areas of human knowledge. Information theory has penetrated physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, philosophy, linguistics, pedagogy, economics, logic, technical sciences, and aesthetics. According to the knowledge of the fakhivts themselves, the need for information that came from the needs of the theory of connection and cybernetics has crossed their boundaries. And now, perhaps, we have the right to talk about information as a scientific concept, which gives the theoretical information method into the hands of predecessors, with the help of which one can penetrate into the wealth of sciences about living and inanimate nature, about marriage, which cannot be allowed look at all the problems on the new side, the other side is more unimaginative. That is why the term “information”, having been abandoned in our time, has become very broad, becoming part of such concepts as information system, information culture, and information ethics.

Numerous scientific disciplines are exploring information theory in order to draw new directions from old sciences. This is how, for example, information geography, information economics, and information law appeared. However, the emergence of the term “information” is extremely important due to the development of new computer technology, automation of mental processes, the development of new methods of communication and processing of information, and especially vineyards of computer science. One of the most important tasks of information theory is the development of the nature and power of information, the creation of methods of its processing, and the transformation of highly dynamic everyday information. in programs for EOM, which additionally support the automation of the mind’s work – this will enhance intelligence, and therefore, develop the intellectual resources of the marriage.

The word “information” is similar to the Latin word informatio, which in translation means information, clarification, awareness. The concept of “information” is basic in a computer science course, but it is impossible to define it through other, simpler concepts. The concept of “information” is widely used in various sciences, while in every science the concept of “information” is associated with various systems of understanding. Information in biology: Biology involves living nature and the concept of “information” is associated with the complete behavior of living organisms. In living organisms, information is transmitted and stored through various objects of different physical nature (DNA), which are considered as signs of biological alphabets. Genetic information is transmitted at birth and is stored in all cells of living organisms. Philosophical approach: Information is about interaction, reflection, knowledge. Cybernetic approach: Information is the characteristics of the carrier signal that is transmitted along the communication line.

The role of information in philosophy

The traditionalism of the subjective consistently dominated the early forms of information, as categories, concepts, and the power of the material world. Information is the main source of our knowledge, and can be received as a result of interaction: receiving, reading, rejecting as a signal, stimulus. Information is not material, like all powers of matter. Information is located in the following row: matter, space, hour, systemicity, function, etc. Information is the power of matter and beats its power (station and publication of mutual relations) and the number of ways of mutual relations.

From a material point of view, information is the order of directing objects of the material world. For example, the procedure for passing the letter on the arkush paper for the singing rules and written information. The order of passing different color dots on the paper's arch, following the simple rules and graphic information. The order of passing musical notes is musical information. The order of passage of genes in DNA is a burst of information. The order of directing bets in the EOM is also based on computer information. etc. For this exchange of information to work, the presence of the necessary and sufficient minds is required.

Required washes:

The presence of at least two different objects, material and intangible, to the world;

The visibility of the objects of hidden power, which makes it possible to identify objects as carriers of information;

The presence of a specific intensity in objects, which allows objects to be separated from each other;

The presence of space, which allows you to determine the order of straightening of objects. For example, the expansion of written information on a paper is a specific power of the paper, which allows the letters of the letter to be expanded to the right and to the bottom.

There is only one sufficient reason: the presence of a subject capable of recognizing information. This is the whole human marriage, the partnership of creatures, robots, etc. Information will be provided to you by selecting from a basis copies of objects and rearranging these objects in the space in the designated order. The duration of information notification is calculated as the number of copies of objects in the basis and is then expressed as a whole number. It is necessary to separate the information from each other, which is in totality, so that we know what to put in the information, which is unknown to one It's dying. From a mathematical point of view, information is the sequence of integer numbers as written in a vector. Numbers are the object number in the information base. The vector is called an invariant of information, the fragments of which lie due to the physical nature of the basis objects. The same information can be expressed in letters, words, propositions, files, pictures, notes, songs, video clips, or any combination of all the above names.

The role of information in physics

Information - information about the excess world (object, process, phenomena, ideas), which is processed by the object (including saving, transmission, etc.) and is used to determine behavior, to make decisions no, for management or for navchannya.

Typical information is as follows:

This is the most important resource of daily production: wine reduces the demand for land, land, capital, and changes the waste of waste and energy. So, for example, if you are willing to archive your files (as well as having such information), you can avoid spending money on buying new floppy disks;

Information calls for the life of a new generation. For example, the introduction of laser technology has caused the rise and development of laser (optical) disks;

Information is a product, and the seller uses the information after the sale. So, if a student informs his friend about the schedule for the semester, he must not spend the money for himself;

Information provides additional value to other resources, such as human resources. In truth, a worker with a high light price is worth more than the average.

As it follows from the meaning, three concepts are linked to the information:

A piece of information is that element of extreme light (object, process, phenomenon, phenomenon), information about what is being transformed by the object. Thus, with the help of information, which is currently being taken away from the reader's initial guide, computer science is a sphere of human activity;

Consuming information is that element of great light that supports information (for shaping behavior, making decisions, managing and starting). The reader of this information is the reader himself;

A signal is a material medium that records the information transferred from the device to the resident. Once the signal is electronic in nature. If the student took this book from the librarian, then the same information is in the paper’s nose. Having been read and memorized by the student, the information adds another dimension – biological, if it is “signed up” for the riddle of the study.

The signal is the most important element of this circuit. The forms of this submission, as well as the specific and clear characteristics of the information that are included in it, which are important for the development of information, are discussed further in this section of the handbook. The main characteristics of the computer, as the main instrument that displays the information source (link 1) and “brings” the signal to the information (link 2), can be found in the Computer section. The structure of procedures that implement connections 1 and 2 and warehouse information process is the subject of consideration in the section Information process.

Objects of material light are in a constant state of change, which is characterized by the exchange of the object’s energy from sub-cells. The change of one object will always lead to the change of another object of the most extreme kind. This phenomenon, despite the fact that the very nature of the objects themselves have changed, can be seen as the transmission of a signal from one object to another. Changing the status of an object before transmitting a signal is called registering a signal.

A signal or a sequence of signals creates a message that can be perceived by someone in a different way, as well as in a different way. Information in physics is a term that clearly defines the concept of “signal” and “information.” If the signals and notifications can be calculated casually, then we can say that the signals and notifications are units of information. The message (signal) is interpreted differently by different systems. For example, a successively long and two short beeps in Morse code terminology means the letter DE (or D), in BIOS terminology from the AWARD company it means a video card malfunction.

The role of information in mathematics

The subject of mathematics is abstract objects: number, function, vector, non-personalities and others. Whose majority of them are introduced axiomatically (axiom), then. without any connection with other concepts and without any significance.

Information is not included in mathematics subjects. The word “information” is lived in mathematical terms – power information and mutual information, which lies before the abstract (mathematical) part of information theory. Prote, in the mathematical theory the concept of “information” is associated with abstract objects – variable quantities, while the modern theory of information views the concept much more broadly – as the power of material objects Ektiv. The connection between the two new terms is beyond doubt. The very mathematical apparatus of linear numbers was developed by the author of information theory, Claude Shannon. He himself pays respect to the term “information” in a fundamental (non-reducible) way. Shannon's theory intuitively respects the fact that information has a place. Information replaces hidden insignificance and information entropy. A lot of information is available worldwide. However, it prevents the predecessors from mechanical transference to understand from this theory to other findings of science.

“The search for the status of information theory in other branches of science does not amount to the trivial transfer of terms from one branch of science to another. the hypothesis of their experimental revolution." K. Shannon.

The role of information in cybernetics

The founder of cybernetics, Norbert Wiener, spoke about information like this:

Information is not matter and not energy, information is not information. in the process of continuation to the new us and ours pochuttiv.

Information is the main concept of cybernetics, and it is also economical. - basic concepts of economical cybernetics.

The meaning of this term is rich, complex and super-expressive. The reason, obviously, is that I. As a matter of fact, sciences are engaged in a variety of sciences, and cybernetics is the youngest of them. I. - subject of study of such sciences as management science, mathematical statistics, genetics, theory of mass functions. (drug, radio, television), computer science, which deals with the problems of scientific and technical I., etc. There is still great interest in the problems of I. Philosophers reveal: the stench is more subtle to discern I. as one of the main universal powers of matter, it is associated with the concepts of imagination. With all interpretations of the concept I. she conveys the origin of two objects: dzherela I. ta spozhivacha (obsessed) I. Transfer I. From one to the next, one is alerted for the help of additional signals, which, apparently, may not have the desired physical connection with its replacement: this connection is determined by pleasure. For example, the blow at the vicious jingle means that you need to get to the square, but for those who are not aware of this order, they are not informing each other.

In the situation with the evening call, people who decide on the sense signal know that at the moment there can be two alternatives: the evening collections will or will not take place. Otherwise, according to my theory I., it is not obvious that two results may occur. The signal of praise leads to a change in insignificance: people now know that hope has only one result - it will happen. However, as it was clear from afar that there would be more to come about this year, the call did not reveal anything new. The result is that the less certain (the more uncertain) the information, the more I. It is important to avoid this, and in the end, the result is more consistent with the end result, and the less I. remove the signal. Approximately the same decline resulted in the 1940s. XX century to the vindication of the statistical and “classical” theory of I., which means the concept of I. through the world of changing insignificance, knowledge about the implementation of any form (this approach was called entropy). At the forefront of this science were N. Wiener, K. Shannon and Radyanskie Vcheni A. N. Kolmogorov, V. A. Kotelnikov and others. They were able to deduce the mathematical laws of the variation of the volume of I., and from this understanding such as the capacity of the channel I., the capacity to remember I. devices, etc., which served as a further incentive for the development of cybernetics as a science and electronic computing technology as a practical stagnation of the reach of cybernetics.

Highly valued value, value I. for the possessor, then there is still a lot of unknown, unclear. As it arises from the needs of economical management and, therefore, economical cybernetics, then I. It is possible to determine how all these data, knowledge, and information help to improve those other tasks (in order to change the insignificance of their results). There are also possibilities for assessing I.: this is useful, valuable, which is easier to achieve the highest level of performance with less investment. Understood I. close to understanding the data. The difference between them is the importance: these are the signals that need to be pulled out. Processing of data is the process of reducing them to their appropriate form.

The process of their transfer from the dzherel until they are accepted and received as I. You can see how three filters pass through:

Physical, or statistical (purely based on the capacity of the channel, regardless of the replacement of data, in terms of syntactics);

Semantic (selection of such data that can be understood in a meaningful way, so that it represents the thesaurus of his knowledge);

Pragmatic (selecting from among sensible facts those that are useful for a successful task).

This is clearly shown in the diagram taken from the book E. G. Yasina about economic information. There are clearly three aspects to the development of problems I. – syntactic, semantic and pragmatic.

Behind the scenes I. is subdivided into suspense-political, socio-economic (including economic I.), scientific and technical, etc. The main classification of I. Indeed, there will be stinks from various bases. As a rule, through proximity one will understand and classify the data. For example, I. is divided into static (permanent) and dynamic (changeable), and data in which case - permanent and changeable. Another division - primary, hidden, exiting I. (this is how the data themselves are classified). Third section - I. important information. The fourth is nadmirna, korisna and hibna. Pyate - povna (sucilna) and vibirkova. This idea of Wiener makes a direct reference to the objectivity of information, then. This reality in nature is independent of people’s knowledge.

Objective information of modern cybernetics means that the objective power of material objects and phenomena generates a variety of states, which, in the form of fundamental interactions of matter, are transmitted through one object (process) to another, and are selected from its structure. The material system in cybernetics is perceived as non-personal objects, which can be exerted by powerful forces in different parts, and the skin part of them is defined as the parts of other objects of the system.

In the nature of the system, there is no information, the system itself is the first code, or the device code. Thus, the skin-material system is a source of information. Cybernetics defines subjective (semantic) information as a substitute for information.

The role of information in information science

The subject of science is the data itself: the methods of its creation, conservation, processing and transmission. Content (also: “new” (in context), “new to the site”) is a term that means all types of information (both text and multimedia - images, audio, video) that become new (visualized for double, instead ) website. A separate concept of information is required to create the internal structure of the page/site (code), based on what is displayed on the screen in the result.

You can see the following approaches until you obtain the information:

Traditional (conventional) - vikorista in information: Information - information, knowledge, information about the state of information that people perceive from the outside world as sensory organs (sight, hearing, taste, hu, dotik).

Imaginary - vikorista in the theory about information: Information - information about the objects and phenomena of the excessive middle class, their parameters, power and the state, which will change the level of insignificance that is evident about them And know the wrong things.

Information is saved, transmitted and processed in symbolic (sign) form. The same information may be presented in different forms:

A symbolic letter, which from different signs between them is symbolic like text, numbers, specials. characters; graphic; tabular then;

Types of gestures and signals;

Usny verbal form (Rozmova).

This information is supported by sign systems, which will be based on the alphabet and create rules for the execution of operations on signs. Language is a song and sign system for presenting information. Show:

Natural languages – common languages in spoken and written forms. In some cases, formal language can be replaced by facial expressions, gestures, and the language of special signs (for example, road signs);

Formal languages are special languages for various areas of human activity, which are characterized by a strictly fixed alphabet, strict rules of grammar and syntax. Tse mov music (notes), mov mathematics (numbers, mathematical signs), numerical systems, mov programming etc. The basis of any language is the alphabet - a set of symbols/symbols. The higher the number of characters in the alphabet is called the strength of the alphabet.

The media of information is the middle or physical body for transmitting, storing and creating information. (These are electrical, light, thermal, sound, radio signals, magnetic and laser disks, other materials, photographs, etc.)

Information processes are processes associated with the capture, storage, processing and transmission of information (those activities that result from information). Tobto. These are processes in which the location of information and the form of its presentation change.

To ensure the information process, there is a need for an information source, a communication channel and information storage channel. Dzherelo transmits (forces) information, and accepts it. The information that is transmitted reaches the device until it receives an additional signal (code). Changing the signal allows you to remove information.

Being an object of transformation and transformation, information is characterized by the following powers:

The syntax is authority, which means the way information is presented on the nose (at the signal). Thus, this information is presented on an electronic device in a special font. Here you can see such parameters for providing information as the style and color of the font, its size, line spacing, etc. Seeing the necessary powers as syntactic elements, obviously, is indicated by the transfer method of transformation. For example, for a person who hates to type, what matters is the size and color of the font. If you have to enter text on a computer through a scanner, an important paper format;

Semantics is power, which means the replacement of information as a signal’s correspondence to the real world. Thus, the semantics of the signal “informatics” is important. Semantics can be seen as a matter of convenience, based on the current information about what the skin signal means (the so-called rule of interpretation). For example, the very semantics of signals is learned by a motorist who studies the rules of the road, learning road signs (in which case the signs themselves act as signals). The semantics of words (signals) is known by those who begin any foreign language. We can safely say that the importance of information technology lies in the learned semantics of various signals - the essence of the key to understanding this discipline;

Pragmatics is power, which means the influx of information on the behavior of a student. Thus, the pragmatics of information contained in the reading of this initial guide seems to be, at least, a successful development from computer science. I would like to believe that the pragmatics of this exercise will not be limited and will serve for the further development of the professional activity of the reader.

It should be noted that different syntax signals can lead to different semantics. For example, the signals “EOM” and “computer” mean an electronic device for processing information. Who dares to talk about the synonymy of signals. On the other hand, one signal (that is, information with one syntactic authority) can mean different pragmatics for students and different semantics. Thus, a road sign with the name “target” and its semantics (“entry fence”) means for a motorist a fence at the entrance, but does not in any way imply a barrier for a pedestrian. At the same time, the “key” signal can have different semantics: a violin key, a jernel key, a key for opening a lock, a key that is used in the information for encoding a signal to protect against unauthorized access (in which case we talk about the homonymy of the signal y). The signals are antonyms that imply semantics. For example, “cold” and “hot”, “sweet” and “high”, etc.

The subject of the science of computer science is the data itself: the methods of its creation, saving, processing and transmission. And the information itself, recorded in the data, is used by the scientists of information systems, as well as by scientists of various sciences and activities: doctors click medical information Yes, geology is geological, enterprise is commercial. (including information from computer science and how to work with data).

Semiotics - the science of information

Information cannot be detected without its capture, processing, transmission, etc., within the framework of information exchange. All acts of information exchange take place in the form of symbols and signs, with the help of which one system merges with another. Therefore, the main science that includes information is semiotics - the science of signs and sign systems in nature and marriage (theory of signs). In every act of information exchange, one can identify three “participants”, three elements: a sign, an object, what it signifies, and the possessor of the sign.

Moreover, between these elements, semiotics is divided into three sections: syntactics, semantics and pragmatics. Syntactics weaves signs and hundredths between them. In this case, one abstracts from the place of the sign and its practical significance for the possessor. Semantics develops the meaning between signs and the objects signified by them, resulting in the form of signs and the values of the remaining ones: for the new. It is clear that the development of the laws of semantic representation of objects in signs is impossible without understanding and the development of hidden laws of any kind of sign systems that are studied by syntactics. Pragmatics twists the lines between signs and their values. Within the framework of pragmatics, all factors are taken into account that differentiate one act of information exchange from another, all the nutrition of practical results from the exchange of information and value for the owner.

In this case, many aspects of the lines of signs are inevitably lost among themselves and with the objects that they signify. Thus, the three branches of semiotics correspond to the three levels of abstraction from the peculiarities of specific acts of information exchange. The development of information in all different aspects reflects a pragmatic attitude. Coming from the content of information, including from the point of view, we move on to it on the semantic level. Instead of symbols of information analysis, the level of syntactics is transferred. Such interpenetration of the main branches of semiotics, associated with different levels of abstraction, can be represented by the additional scheme “Three branches of semiotics and their interconnections.” Vibration of information appears to be the same in three aspects: syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. The need for such a wide range of information, as will be shown below, is dictated by the practice of design and organization of information systems. Let's take a look at the typical situation.

Finally, change the plot planner and prepare the final production schedule. This data goes to the information and calculation center (IOC) of the enterprise, where it is processed, and the information about the production plant is currently visible to the kernels. The head of the workshop, based on the collected data, makes a decision to change the production plan for the upcoming planning period or implement any other organizational steps. Obviously, for the shop manager, the amount of information that was used to inform the process depends on the magnitude of the economic impact that is derived from the decision made, in view of the extent to which the data was removed i. For the plot planner, the amount of information in the same information depends on the accuracy of the reporting of the factual status of the plot and the level of disagreement of the facts that are reported. Whatever they are, they need to inform the authorities about them, so there is more information in your report. For IOC practitioners, the number of signs is of primary importance, the date of notification, which carries information, since it itself signifies the importance of computing technology and communication channels. Regardless of the richness of the information, nor the great world of semantic value of the information, it is practically impossible to emphasize them.

It is natural that when organizing a production management system, future models for choosing a solution, as the world of information content will be aware of the inherently high value of information. When the system is up and running, it will ensure the storage of data about the processing of the manufacturing process for a large amount of information, after accepting the newness of the removed documents. The organization of procedures for the mechanical processing of information requires a careful understanding of the number of observable signs. Three such different approaches to the transformation of information do not overlap and do not include one another. However, by measuring information on different scales, they allow us to better and more comprehensively assess the informativeness of skin awareness and effectively organize a production management system. Behind the best Viraz, Prof. NOT. Kobrinsky, when it comes to the rational organization of information flows, the volume, novelty, and richness of information are interconnected, just like the volume, consistency and variety of products ї at the plant.

Information from the material world

Information is one of the most important things to understand related to matter. Information originates from any material object as a variety of its elements and is transmitted from object to object in a mutual process. The basis of information as the objective power of matter logically follows from the known fundamental powers of matter - structure, constant change (rukh) and interaction of material objects.

The structure of matter manifests itself as an internal division of wholeness, a natural order of linking elements in the composition of the whole. Otherwise, it seems, be it a material object, like a subatomic part of the Meta-Verseve (Great Vibukh), a system of mutually dependent subsystems. As a result of the uninterrupted upheaval, which is widely understood as the movement in space and the developments of the hour, material objects change their positions. The state of objects changes and interacts with other objects. The physical components of the material system and its subsystems provide information about the system.

Strictly apparent, through insignificance, inconsistency, power of structure, the amount of objective information in any material object is endless. This information is called again. However, it is possible to see structural levels with terminal multiples of stations. Information that is based on the structural level with the final number of stages is called private. For private information, it is important to understand the scope of the information.

The above statement is logical and results in the choice of a unit depending on the amount of information. Let's see the system, how you can experience everything in two equal countries. Give one of them the code “1”, and the other - “0”. The amount of information that the system can accommodate is minimal. This is one piece of information and is called a bit. There are different, more complex ways of processing a certain amount of information.

Depending on the material form of the carrier, information comes in two main types – analog and discrete. Analog information changes continuously over time and acquires a continuum value. Discrete information changes at any given time and accumulates a value with a certain number of values. Any material object or process is the primary source of information. You can all set a code for receiving information. Mittev's meanings are presented as a symbol (letter) of the code. In order for information to be transmitted from one object to another before receiving it, it is necessary to have some kind of intermediate material object that interacts with the device. Such carriers in nature, as a rule, are processes of the hyl structure, which are rapidly expanding - cosmic, gamma and X-ray vibrations, electromagnetic and sound waves, potentials (and may not yet be discovered) and hvili) gravitational field. When electromagnetic interference interacts with the object, the spectrum changes as a result of the reflection and reflection. The intensity of daily activities changes. Changes when interacting with objects and the harmony of sound sounds. Information is transmitted through mechanical interaction; mechanical interaction, as a rule, leads to major changes in the structure of objects (even before they are destroyed), and the information is greatly affected. The distortion of information during transmission is called disinformation.

The transfer of jerela information to the structure of the nose is called encoding. In this case, the device code will be converted to the wearable code. The nose with the dzherela code transferred by it, like the nose code, is called a signal. A receiver of a signal has its own set of possible parameters, which is called a receiver code. The signal, interacting with the receiving object, changes its state. The process of converting a signal code into a receiving code is called decoding. The transmission of information through the receiving device can be considered as information exchange. Information exchanges are radically different from other interactions. In all other interactions between material objects, there is an exchange of speech and (or) energy. In this case, one of the objects expends speech and energy, and the other takes it away. This mutual power is called symmetry. When interacting with information, the recipient receives the information and the user receives it. Objective information in itself is not material, it has the power of matter, such as, for example, structure, structure, and is based on material elements in the form of its codes.

Information from living nature

Living nature is complex and varied. In this way, the information is received by living organisms and their cells. The body has low powers that destroy its type of inanimate material objects.

Basics:

Continuous exchange of speech, energy and information with people;

Substance, the ability of the body to accept and process information about changes in the external environment and the internal environment of the body;

Alertness, ability to react to the activities of the subordinates;

Self-organization, which manifests itself as a change in the body to adapt to the minds of a child.

The organism, which is viewed as a system, has a hierarchical structure. This structure of the body itself is divided into internal levels: molecular, cellular, level of organs, structure, moisture of the body. However, the organism interacts with other living systems, such as the population, ecosystem and all living nature (biosphere). The flows of not only speech and energy, but also information, circulate between these levels. Information interactions in living nature are generated in the same way as in non-living nature. At the same time, living nature during the process of evolution has created a wide range of sources, carriers and information receivers.

The reaction to the infusion of external light manifests itself in all organisms, although it is characterized by tolerance. In other organisms, adaptation to the current environment is a complex activity, which is only effective if you receive new and up-to-date information about the environment. The information from the addition of stench includes sensory organs such as sight, hearing, smell, taste, dotage and the vestibular apparatus. The internal structure of organisms has numerous internal receptors associated with the nervous system. The nervous system consists of neurons, groups of which (axons and dendrites) are analogues of information transmission channels. The brain organs that ensure the storage and processing of information in the spine are the spinal cord and the brain. Apparently, depending on the characteristics of the organs, information that is received by the body can be classified as visual, auditory, savory, olfactory and tactile.

Spending on the retina of the human eye, the signal awakens their cells in a special way. Nerve impulses from cells are transmitted through axons to the cerebrum. The brain remembers what appears to be a combination of storage neurons. (Continuation of the butt - in the section "Information in human partnership"). By accumulating information, the brain creates in its structure an information model of excessive light. In living nature, the organism's acceptance of information has an important characteristic - its accessibility. The amount of information that the human nervous system puts into the brain during the hour of reading texts is approximately 1 bit per 1/16 s.

The study of organisms is made more difficult by their complexity. The abstraction of structure as a mathematical multiplicity is acceptable for inanimate objects, but it is hardly acceptable for a living organism, because to create a less adequate abstract model of the organism it is necessary to incorporate all hierarchical levels wow structure. It’s difficult to provide the world with a lot of information. The connections between the components of the structure are clearly defined. Do you know which organ is the source of information, what is the signal and what do we receive?

Before the advent of computational machines, biology, which deals with the tracking of living organisms, remained unclear. descriptive models In an explicit model, it is practically impossible to highlight the information connections between the components of the structure. Electronic computing technology has allowed new methods to be used in biological research, including the method of machine modeling, which conveys a mathematical description of the known phenomena and processes that occur in the body, adding hypothesis to them about unknown processes and the development of possible behavioral options for the body. Eliminate options to compare with the real behavior of the body, which allows you to determine the truth and falsehood of the hypotheses. With such models it is possible to acquire information mutually. Information processes that ensure a healthy life are extremely complex. And although it is intuitively understood that this power is directly related to the formation, storage and transfer of new information about the structure of the body, an abstract description of this phenomenon has proven impossible until now. No less, information processes that ensure the foundation of this power are often open to deciphering the genetic code and reading the genomes of various organisms.

Information from the spouse

The development of matter during the process of collapse is directly related to the folding of the structure of material objects. One of the most complex structures is the human brain. So far, there is only one structure known to us, which is power, as people themselves call it. Speaking about information as mere facts, we must respect a priori that information, in addition to its obviousness in the appearance of signals that we receive, may also be a kind of sense. By forming a model of the world in their knowledge, as the totality of models of its objects and processes is interconnected, people are victorious about the very meaning of the concept, and not the information. Sense is the essence of any phenomenon, as it relates to itself and connects it with the broader context of reality. The word itself directly indicates that only a small amount of accepted information can be formed instead of information. In human endeavor, it is not the information itself that is of greatest importance, but the meaning behind it.

Butt (continued). Having recognized this, a person gives the object a concept - “tomato”, as the concept becomes “red color”. In addition, its knowledge fixes the connection: “tomato” - “red color”. This is the sense of the received signal. (Continuation of the butt: lower in this section). The ability of the brain to create the meaning of concepts and connections between them is the basis of knowledge. Svidomost can be seen as a semantic model of an excess of light that develops itself. Sense is not information. Information is based only on a material basis. People's reputation is valued intangibly. The sense is in the knowledge of people in appearance, image and impression. A person can say words out loud, or “to himself.” You can also create (or guess) images and visualize them “in your head.” However, you can update the information that corresponds to your sense by seeing the words or writing them.

Butt (continued). If the words “tomato” and “red color” are understandable, then what is information? Information is located in the brain in the form of neurons. It also fits into the overhand text that consists of these words, and when the letter is encoded with a three-digit two-digit code, its capacity is still 120 bits. If you can speak your words out loud, there will be much more information, rather than being deprived of it. The most information carries a healthy image. This is contrary to the popular folklore saying: “It’s better to drink once than a hundred times.” The information updated in this way is called semantic information, since it encodes the sense of some primary information (semantics). Having sensed (or learned) a phrase captured (or written) by mine, which people do not know, they reject the information, otherwise they cannot determine its change. Therefore, the transfer of information to the sensory space is necessary for the purpose between the operator and the receiver of the signals, then. drain Such areas can be reached during the silting process. Spilling is one of the most important minds and the foundation of human prosperity.

In the modern world, information is one of the most important resources and, at the same time, one of the most important forces in the development of human society. Information processes that take place in the material world, living nature and human endeavor are studied (or even covered) by a variety of scientific disciplines from philosophy to marketing. The growing complexity of scientific research has made it necessary to recruit great teams of various specialties to the top. Therefore, everything is analyzed below theory and interdisciplinary. Historically, it has been the case that two complex branches of science - cybernetics and computer science - are engaged in the research of central information.

Current cybernetics is a multi-disciplinary branch of science that follows superstructure systems such as:

Human matrimony (social cybernetics);

economics (economic cybernetics);

Living organism (biological cybernetics);

The human brain's function is intelligence (intelligence).

Computer science, which was formed as a science in the middle of the last century, was strengthened by cybernetics and is engaged in research into ways of capturing, storing, transmitting and processing semantic information. Obedvі tsi galuzі vikoristovuyut a number of basic scientific theories. Before them comes the theory of information, and its branches - the theory of coding, the theory of algorithms and the theory of automata. The investigation of the semantic place of information is based on a complex of scientific theories under the popular name of semiotics. Information theory is a complex, largely mathematical theory that includes a description of the evaluation of methods for acquiring, transmitting, storing and classifying information. Views the elements of information as elements of an abstract (mathematical) multiplicity, and the interactions between the elements as a way of rotating the elements of this multiplicity. This approach makes it possible to formally describe the information code in order to identify the abstract code and trace it using mathematical methods. For this purpose, the research is based on the methods of the theory of certainty, mathematical statistics, linear algebra, gor theory and other mathematical theories.

The foundations of this theory are based on the American teachings of Ege. Hartley in 1928. The later theory was significantly disproven by the American scientist Do. Shannon, Russian scholars A.N. Kolmogorov, V.M. Glushkov and in. Current information theory includes the theory of coding, the theory of algorithms, the theory of digital machines (division below) and others. We honor M. Mazur. With the understanding of the algorithm, you know whether you are a human being, nor do you suspect about it. The axis of the informal algorithm: “Cut the tomatoes into circles and slices. Place the shattered cybul in them, pour in the olive oil, then add finely chopped capsicum and stir. Before the dinner, take a sip, set out the salad bowl and garnish with parsley.” (Tomato salad).

The first rules of arithmetic in the history of mankind were broken down by one of the ancient Al-Khwarizm in the 9th century of our era. In honor of this, the formalized rules for reaching anything are called algorithms. The subject of the theory of algorithms is the discovery of methods for promptly evaluating effective (including universal) computational and other algorithms for processing information. To ground such methods, the theory of algorithms is based on the mathematical apparatus of information theory. A great contribution to the development of the theory of algorithms was made by the Russian scientists A. Markov (Markov Normal Algorithm) and A. Kolmogorov.

The concept of an automaton is different from the theory of algorithms. Since there are universal algorithms for solving computational tasks, it is necessary to develop devices (even abstract ones) for the implementation of such algorithms. The abstract Turing machine, which is seen in the theory of algorithms, is now an informal automaton. The theoretical arrangement of such devices is the subject of the theory of automata. The theory of automata is a vikory apparatus of mathematical theories - algebra, mathematical logic, combinatorial analysis, graph theory, theory of consistency, etc. core systems. Semiotics is a complex of scientific theories that counteract the power of sign systems. The greatest results have been achieved in the branch of semiotics – semantics. The subject of semantics research is the place of information.

The sign system respects the system of concrete and abstract objects (signs, words), with each individual order assigned to the meaning. Theoretically, it has been proven that there could be two of these. The first type of evidence means an absolutely material object, which is what this word means and is called a denotation (or, in some cases, a nominator). Another type of appearance is the replacement of a sign (word) and is called a concept. In this case, such authorities are considered as “sense”, “truth”, “importance”, “following”, “interpretation” and so on. To follow the research, the apparatus of mathematical logic and mathematical linguistics is used. The ideas of semantics, outlined by G. W. F de Saussure in the 19th century, were formulated and developed by C. Pierce (1839-1914), C. Morris (b. 1901), R. Carnap (1891-1970) and others. The main achievement of the theory is the creation of the apparatus of semantic analysis, which allows us to replace the natural text with formalized semantic (meaning) language. Semantic analysis is the basis for the creation of devices (programs) for machine translation from one natural language to another.

Saving information is supported by the transfer of material materials. Semantic information recorded on a material medium for storage is called a document. People started saving information a long time ago. In the most recent forms of saving information, there was a distribution of objects - shells and stones on the sand, knots on the motuz. The ultimate development of these methods was writing - the graphic depiction of signs on stone, clay, papyrus, paper. The development of this development is of great importance because of the very few wines of medicine. Over the course of its history, humanity has accumulated a great wealth of information in libraries, archives, periodicals and other written documents.

At this time of special significance, the preservation of information in the form of sequences of double symbols has become necessary. To implement these methods, various devices are used. It is the central pillar of information saving systems. In addition, such systems have different methods of searching for information (search system), methods of removing evidence (information-proof systems) and methods of displaying information (display devices). Formed for the recognition of information, such information systems create databases, data banks and knowledge bases.

The transfer of semantic information is called the process of spatial transfer from the message to the recipient (addressee). People have learned to transmit and receive information earlier, but not to save it. The language is the method of transmission that our distant ancestors used to learn from direct contact (rozmov) - we learn from it at the same time. To transmit information across large distances, it is necessary to develop highly complex information processes. To carry out such a process, information must be properly formalized (presented). To present information, various sign systems are used - sets of back-to-back meaningful symbols: objects, pictures, written and worded words from natural language. Submitted from them is additional semantic information about any object, phenomenon or process is called notification.

Obviously, in order to transmit the information to the station, the information must be transferred to the mobile device. The carriers can be moved in space using additional transport methods, as is the case with sheets that are sent by mail. This method ensures the complete reliability of the transmission, as long as the recipient receives the original message, noting the exact time of transmission. Since the middle of the 19th century, expanded methods of transmitting information have emerged, which naturally expands with information - electromagnetic vibrations (electric vibrations, radio waves, light). The implementation of these methods means:

Forward transfer of information to be included in the information, nose - coding;

Ensuring the transmission of the signal received in this manner to the addressee via a special communication channel;

Reversing the signal code to the notification code - decoding.

The use of electromagnetic carriers to ensure the delivery of messages to the addressee by Mayzha Mitteva, ensures additional visits to ensure the accuracy (reliability and accuracy) of the information that is transmitted from the real channel and the binding is subject to the influx of natural and hand-made transfers. Devices that implement the transfer process establish communication systems. Depending on the method of presenting information, communication systems can be divided into signs (telegraph, telefax), sound (telephone), video and combined systems (television). The most advanced system in our time is the Internet.

Processing information

Some information is not material, its processing is carried out in various transformations. Before processing processes, it is possible to include any transfer of information from one medium to another. The information that is intended for processing is called data. The main type of processing of primary information, extracted with various devices, is transformation into a form that will ensure the perception of human sensory organs. Thus, photos taken to space, taken in X-ray exchanges, are transformed into original color photographs with special transformations of the spectrum and photographic materials. The devices of the night tank transform images contained in infrared (thermal) changes into images in the visible range. For such communication and control, it is necessary to convert analog information. For this purpose, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion of signals is used.

The most important type of processing of semantic information is the determination of the place (place) that is in the mind of the individual. In contrast, the primary semantic information does not have statistical characteristics, so in many ways there is no sense. And how many things there are, it’s impossible to establish. The space that is placed in the subtitle is described by a piece of text, which represents the meaning of the connections between the words of the output text. A glossary of such language, called a thesaurus, is available at the reception. The sense on the left and the word being reported is indicated by the way of their addition to the song groups of words or words, the replacements of which are already installed. The thesaurus, in this way, allows you to replace the knowledge and instantly add new semantic concepts. Descriptions of the type of information processing are established in information-sound systems and machine translation systems.

One of the broadest types of information processing is the solution of computing problems and the task of automatic control of additional computing machines. The processing of information will always be carried out carefully. To achieve this, there is a certain order of actions on the information to get to the desired destination. This order of actions is called an algorithm. In addition to the algorithm itself, there is a need for a device that implements the algorithm. In scientific theories, such a device is called an automaton. It should be noted that the most important feature of information is the fact that through the asymmetry of information interaction when processing information, new information emerges, and the output information not spent.

Analogue and digital information

The sound of the village clanging in the middle, for example, in the wind. When a person speaks, the quivering of the throat ligaments transforms into the cold tingling of the wind. If you look at the sound not as a whine, but as a swaying sound at one point, then the swaying sound can be perceived as the pressure of a wind that changes over the course of an hour. With the help of a microphone, you can change the pressure and change it to electrical voltage. The pressure was turned on and the electric voltage was released.

Such re-creation can follow different laws; most often, re-creation follows a linear law. For example, for this:

U(t)=K(P(t)-P_0),

where U(t) is the electric voltage, P(t) is the wind pressure, P_0 is the average wind pressure, and K is the transformation coefficient.

І electrical voltage, і pressure of the wind and continuous functions for an hour. Functions U(t) and P(t) provide information about the pricking of the throat ligaments. These functions are continuous and such information is called analog. Music, as a result of sound and sound, can also be represented as having some function in time. There will be an analog Vistava music. Ale music can also be written down in the form of notes. The skin note has a multiple of its strength and height (C, D, M, F, S, etc.). As soon as we turn this data into numbers, we reject the digital representation of music.

Let’s swear by the sound of people’s thoughts. This can also be seen in analogue view. Just like music can be broken down into notes, it can be broken down into letters. As soon as the skin's date and dialing numbers are entered, we can reject the digital expressions of the language. The difference between analog and digital information is that analog information is continuous, while digital information is discrete. The transformation of information from one form into another is appropriately called “reconversion” in different ways, for example, digital-to-analog conversion, or analog-to-digital conversion; folding transformations are called “coded”, for example, delta-coded, entropic coded; The transformation between such characteristics as amplitude, frequency or phase is called “modulation”, for example, amplitude-frequency modulation, pulse-width modulation.

Make analog transformations simple and easy to handle on a variety of devices for humans. The tape recorder converts the magnetization on the film into sound, the recorder converts the sound into magnetization on the film, the video camera converts light into the magnetization on the film, the oscillograph converts the electrical voltage or stream on the pictures etc. Transformation of analogue information into digital information. The operations of the machine cannot be done, or they can be done by force. For example, converting a movie into text, or converting a recording of a concert into notes, and due to its nature it is a digital phenomenon: the text on a paper requires a machine to convert into the same text in the computer’s memory.

Why is it so difficult to use digital information? The main advantage of digital information over analog information is the difference. So, in the process of copying information, digital information is copied so that it can be copied almost infinitely many times, analog information becomes noisy during the copying process, and the taste savors. However, analog information can be copied no more than three times. I was overwhelmed by the brilliance of the recording. The information on the cassette is saved in analogue mode. You can rewrite music in mp3 format as many times as you like, and the quality of the music will not be compromised. The information in the mp3 file is saved in digital form.

Volume of information

People who are any other recipient of information, having removed a portion of information, allow the act of insignificance. Let's take the same wood for the butt. If we were planted on a tree, we were allowed to live in insignificant things. We found out the height of the tree, the type of tree, the thickness of the leaves, the color of the leaves, and what kind of fruit tree it is, we harvested the fruits on the new one, how ripe they were, etc. Before we marveled at the tree, we didn’t know what it was, but after we marveled at the tree, we allowed for insignificance - we rejected information.

As soon as we go out into the meadow and admire it, we reject information of a different kind, how big the meadow is, how tall the grass is, and what color the grass is. If a biologist grows in the same meadow, then it is also possible to determine what varieties of grass grow on the meadow, what type of meadow this is, what flowers will bloom, what kind of plants will bloom, and what type of meadow will be suitable for grazing cows. etc. So, we see more information, but there are more fragments in the new one, before we marvel at the meadow, there is more information, and the biologist finds more inconsistencies.

The more insignificance was allowed in the process of information extraction, the more information was removed. Although this is a subjective approach, there is only so much information, but we would like an objective approach. The formula is based on a lot of information. We have a lot of insignificance, and we have a lot of episodes of insignificance, and a lot of information can be destroyed come up with this formula, having told us Shannon:

I = -(p_1 \log_(2)p_1 + p_2 \log_(2)p_2 + ... +p_N \log_(2)p_N), de

I – quantity of information;

N – number of heirlooms;

p_1, p_2, ..., p_N - reliability of the result.

A lot of information is contained in bits - the short version of the English words Binary digiT, which means double digit.

For those who are equal, the formula can be simply written:

I = \log_(2)N, de

I – quantity of information;

N – number of heirlooms.

Let's take, for example, a coin and a movie on the table. There will fall either an eagle or a rishka. We have 2 equal versions. After we tossed a coin, we took back \log_(2)2=1 bit of information.

Let's try to find out how much information we reject as a movie cube. The cube has six sides - six equal sides. Reduced: \log_(2)6 \approx 2.6. After we threw the cube on the table, we took away approximately 2.6 bits of information.

The probability of what we think of as a Martian dinosaur as soon as we leave the house is equal to one in ten billion. How much information do we take in about the Martian dinosaur once we leave home?

-\left(((1 \over (10^(10)))) \log_2(1 \over (10^(10))) + \left(( 1 - (1 \over (10^(10))) )) ) \right) \log_2 \left(( 1 - (1 \over (10^(10))) )\right)) \right) \approx 3.4 \cdot 10^(-9) bit.

Let's say we were deprived of 8 coins. We have 2^8 coin drop options. So, after throwing coins, we remove \log_2(2^8)=8 bits of information.

If we set the power supply and can, however, remove the “so” and “no” answer, then after the power supply we remove one bit of information.

It is surprising that once we establish Shannon’s formula for analogue information, we discover an infinite amount of information. For example, the voltage at the point of an electric lance can rise from zero to one volt. We have a large number of inheritances, and by substituting the values in the formula for equal steps, we take away the vastness of information.

Now I’ll show you how to encode “War and Peace” with just one vest on some kind of metal haircut. We encode all the letters and signs that appear in “War and Peace”, using double-digit numbers - we can read them. For example, the letter "A" gives the code "00", the letter "B" - the code "01" and so on, divisional characters, Latin letters and numbers are encoded. We recode “War and Peace” using an additional code and remove another number, for example, 70123856383901874..., put a zero in front of this number (0.70123856383901874...). The number came out from zero to one. Let's put the rhizik on the metal cutter so that the wear of the left part of the cutter until the last cut is equal to our number. In such a way that we would like to read “War and Peace”, we simply measure the left part of the cut to the beginning and end of the whole cut, divide one number by another, subtract the number and recode it back from the letter (“00” from “A”, "01" in "B", etc.).

In reality, we won’t be able to work like that, because we won’t be able to calculate the dowzhins with infinite accuracy. Increasing the accuracy of our simulations is important to us in engineering problems, and quantum physics shows us that after the end of the day, quantum laws are still important to us. Intuitively, we realized that the less accurate the view, the less information we can reject, and the greater the accuracy, the more information we can reject. Shannon's formula is not suitable for vibrating a lot of analog information, for which there are other methods, which are discussed in “Information Theory”. In computer technology, this corresponds to the physical state of carrying information: magnetized - not magnetized, open - not open, charged - not charged, light is knocked out - light is not knocked out That is, high electrical potential – low electrical potential. In one case it is customary to designate it with the number 0, in another – with the number 1. The sequence of battles can be encoded with any information: text, images, sound, etc.

Along with a bit, the value called a byte is often compared to 8 bits. And since the byte allows you to select one valid option from two possible ones, then the byte is 1 out of 256 (2^8). To visualize a large amount of information, larger units are also used:

1 KB (one kilobyte) 210 bytes = 1024 bytes

1 MB (one megabyte) 210 KB = 1024 KB

1 GB (one gigabyte) 210 MB = 1024 MB

In reality, the prefixes С kilo-, mega-, giga-may be used for multipliers 10^3, 10^6 and 10^9, apparently, but the practice of vicorizing multiplies in steps of two has developed historically.

The Shannon bit and the bit that is used in computer technology are avoided because the likelihood of zeros and ones appearing in a computer bit is older. Since the credibility is not equal, the amount of information according to Shannon is less than what we have studied on the butt of the Martian dinosaur. The computer quantity of information gives the most common assessment of the quantity of information. The non-volatile memory, after applying life to it, is initialized depending on some values, for example, all ones or all zeros. It is clear that after submitting the recipe for the riddle, there is no information there, since the meaning in the middle of the memory is strictly assigned, there is no insignificance. The memory can store a lot of information, but after feeding it with live information, it is empty.

Disinformation is obviously untrue information that is given to the enemy or business partner for more effective conduct of combat operations, contrary to the information flow, and directly to the flow, Laziness of potential clients of the black market. Also, disinformation (also known as misinformation) is the process of manipulating information, deceiving someone by giving them new or new information. ї, due to the context, due to the piece of information.

Disinformation, therefore, is a product of human activity, an attempt to create hostility and, apparently, to lead to necessary actions and/or inactivity.

Types of disinformation:

Introducing a specific individual or a group of individuals (including an entire nation) into slavery;

Manipulation (of the features of one individual or a group of individuals);

The creation of a huge thought is like a problem of an object.

Induction into deception is nothing more than direct deception, giving fraudulent information. Manipulation is a way of infusing, directing directly to change the activity of people. The following manipulations are evident:

Strengthening the knowledge of people who are visible to the manipulator of values (ideas, attitudes);

Frequent changes in views on this or that decor or furnishings;

A radical change in living attitudes.

The creation of a huge thought is the whole formation of the singer’s marriage to the same problem.

Dzherela ta posilannya

ru.wikipedia.org – free encyclopedia Wikipedia

youtube.com - YouTube video hosting

images.yandex.ua - Yandex pictures

google.com.ua - Google images

ru.wikibooks.org - wikipedia

inf1.info – Planet of Informatics

old.russ.ru – Russian Journal

shkolo.ru - Information provider

5byte.ru – Informatics website

ssti.ru – Information technologies

klgtu.ru - Informatics

informatika.sch880.ru – website of computer science teacher O.V. Pidvintseviy

bibliofond.ru - electronic library Bibliofond

life-prog.ru - programming

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