What is the frequency of GHz. How the frequency is injected into the firmware of the processor

Memory up to which the CPU can be addressed.

Chip integration stage (Chip) shows how many transistors can fit in a new one. For a Pentium (80586) Intel processor - about 3 million transistors per 3.5 cm 2.

Processor capacity shows how many bits of these vins can be accepted and processed in their registers at a time (per cycle). Current processors of the family Intel Pentiumє 32-bit

Working clock frequency determines the speed, with which operations are performed in the processor. Today, the operating frequencies of the processors reach more, lower than 1 billion cycles per second (1 GHz).

The CPU is in direct contact with operational memory PC. Data, like processing the CPU, is due to time-consuming shifting in RAM and for further processing, again requesting memory. For the CPU86 / 88, the address area can be expanded up to a maximum of 1 MB, the 80486 processor can already access up to 4 GB of memory.

Real Address Mode - real addressing mode (or just real mode - Real Mode), I will sum it up with 8086. In this mode, addressing up to 1 MB of physical memory is possible (on the very right, like 80286, may be 64 KB more).

Protected Virtual Address Mode - stealth virtual addressing mode (or just stealth mode - Protected Mode). In this mode, the processor allows addressing up to 4 GB of physical memory, through which, with a different mechanism of storinkovo ​​addressing, up to 64 TB can be addressed virtual memory skin care.

Suttevim additions є Virtual 8086 Mode - 8086 virtual processor mode. This mode is a special setting for the protected mode, in which the processor functions like 8086. On one processor in this mode, a slab of a manager can be simultaneously isolated with one or the same resources.

Important attention to elements operational memory in the case of other memorizing attachments - hour access, which is characterized by an hour interval, the length of which information is recorded in the memory or removed from it. An hour of access for the sound wear of data, such as hard drive, It is displayed in milliseconds, but for the memory element it will be reduced to seconds.

disk drive (Floppy Disk Drive, FDD)є the oldest peripheral buildings PC. In the capacity of carrying information, floppy disks are stored in them (Floppy) diameters 3.5 "and sizes 5.25".

To write and read information, it is extremely important to split a floppy disk into certain areas - to create a logical structure. Tse vykonuetsya formatuvannya way for help special teams, For example, for DOS - command Format. The floppy disk is divided into tracks ( tracks) i sectors (Sectors), In fig. the brokenness is shown.

The main criteria for evaluation Winchester є yoga єmnіst, tobto maximum commitment danih kakiy maє buti records on nose

When zooming to large arrays of data, the magnetic heads are due to position more often on the disk, lower when zooming to small arrays and data, like sequentially spreading on the disk. So the speed of reading and writing is determined by the average access hour (A Verage Seek Time to other objects on disk. For shorter IDE and SCSI HDDs, the hour is less than 10 ms.

The speed of data transfer is shown as another parameter for evaluating the productivity of a hard drive. It's important to respect that for my current won't be 10 MB / s.

The monitor is an attachment for visual display of information. Signals that are taken by the monitor (numbers, symbols, graphic information and synchronization signals) are formed by the video card. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the monitor and the video card are a kind of tandem, which, for optimal work, is due to buti lashings in the daily rank.

Video card.

For more, zastosuvan allowed the VGA standard to be sufficient. With this program, oriented to the graphics, it is much faster and faster (there are some fluctuations, if the stench is not restored, if it is installed, it allowed or the video card does not match their capabilities), in a different way no more screen. For whom, vkrai importantly pіdvishuvati allowed. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, standard VGA having risen to the so-called Super VGA (SVGA) standard. The standard readability of this mode is 800x600 pixels.

Significantly regularity: with the use of video memory of 256 Kb and SVGA-spread building, only 16 colors can be provided; 512 Kb of video memory give the possibility of imagining even 256 colors with the same razdіlnіy building. Cards that can store 1 MB of memory, but at the same time it has already become a phenomenal phenomenon, allow you to display 32768, 65536 (HiColor) or 16.7 million (TrueColor) color images.

Behind the current medical and psychological assessments of the eyes of a person, they do not see the screen, they are connected with the images, only at a frequency of a vertical rise of not less than 70 Hz. With an increased visibility of the image on the monitor screen, it starts to feel bad, which strongly promotes drowsiness and is negatively signified at dawn.

The main resting parameters monitors є Screen resize, screen mask crop, maximum image regeneration frequency and protection class.

The largest wide-angle and universal monitors with a screen size of 15 and 17 inches diagonally. For work with graphics, they are victorious, monitors and with large screen sizes (19-21 inches).

The scale of the screen mask determines the clarity of the image (various buildings). Today, the crack is 0.25-0.27 mm. All monitors with grain larger than 0.28 mm are classified as "cheap" and "coarse". Shorter monitors the grain size is 0.26 mm, and the most expensive monitor we see (and, naturally, the most expensive one) has a value of 0.21 mm.

The frequency of image regeneration also determines the clarity and smoothness of the image and is not lower than 75 Hz.

The security class determines the monitor's reliability for the help of security equipment. The highest standards for the safety of robots are ensured by the TSO-99 standard.

The authority of the image lies not only in the monitor, but also err of authority and the establishment of a payment placed in system block(Video adapter). The monitor and the video adapter are to blame for one to one (for example, the current video adapter is to blame for a memory of at least 4 MB).

Let's say a few words about trade signs. The catalogs and announcements for sales of computers have a wide range of features. The method of determining the type of computer, accepted in the most stunned, can be seen on a specific application:

PIII-600-Intel BX / 64 / 6.4Gb / SVGA 8Mb / CD / SB16 / ATX

Here PHI - processor type - Pentium III;

600 - processor clock frequency in MHz;

VX - type maternity pay;

64 - the amount of operational memory in MB;

6.4Gb - obligated zhorstkogo disk - 6.4 GB;

SVGA - video card type;

8Mb - total video memory in MB;

CD - indicates the presence of the CD-ROM drive;

SB16 - type sound card(Sound Blaster);

clock frequency. - understand and see. Classification and particularity of the category "Clock frequency." 2014 rock, 2015.

Processor clock frequency - tse kіlkіst kolivan for the song interval of an hour(In this vipadka - in a second). If you are talking about a personal computer, then for a new one it is an indication of the number of operations, for example, you can beat the processor in 1 second. Remember: the greater the clock speed indicator, the greater the productivity of the computer.

Yakі іsnuyut raznovidi

Tse tsikavo! The unit of frequency is called “hertz”, and it is named after the legendary German scientist-physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, who in 1885 conducted a unique experiment to confirm the correctness of the electromagnetic theory. Teachings dovіv, scho light - tse raznovid elektromagnіtnogo vpromіnyuvannya, yak poshiryuєєtsya vyglyadі spetsialnyh khvil.

Fahіvtsі see 2 different clock frequencies.

1. Zovnishnya (added to the data exchange between the operative memory board and the processor).
2. Internal (influences the correctness and speed of the work in the middle of the processor).

Tsіkaviy and the fact that until 1992, two or more indicators, as a rule, were reduced, and only as a result of the introduction of new technologies by the facsimiles of the Intel company, the internal frequency was increased by 2 times in pairs. The butt of such an achievement was the processor 80486DX2, unique at that time. Virobnik presented a huge number of 2 types of such a processor: one is less strained (25/50 MHz), the other one is more productive (33/66 MHz). This wine was given a serious post, including for other wineries, and the stench began to be actively developed and released to processors with a markedly greater intensity.

Wart respect for such an important moment: the clock frequency of the processor is not the only criterion for evaluating the firmware and productivity of the computer. It is necessary to protect the amount of cache memory as well. For some processors the rest of the generation A special system has been won, which results in an automatic increase in the clock frequency of the processor cores. Also, as an active gamer, you don’t show your life without being burrowed into a muffled world of folding, as for the plot, so according to the schedule, Igor, then you need it. And the axis for the classic office robot pidide and modern PC.

How is the clock frequency set?

As you can see, the beats are settled as a result of crystal quartz, which is in a special container. Tsey Priya bear the name "clock resonator". Krystal starts working only after supplying voltage and lighting up the electrostrum. Dali qi kolivanya are fed to the clock generator, after which the transformation of the kolivanie to the electrostrum into impulses is carried out, and the stench is already transmitted to the data bus.

Remember that the clock generator itself is responsible for the required cycle of functioning of all PC components, including buses, RAM and, of course, central processor. As long as the clock generator is working correctly, all components will also function as synchronously as possible and well.
Ісnuє і tak understand, like the period of the clock frequency.

The period of the clock frequency is the minimum unit, for the help of which the hour of the processor's work is reduced.

Increased frequency by way of overclocking

Vzaimodiyuchi with the payment of operational memory, the processor will sound more than one clock cycle. This display can be increased piece by piece, so as a result of the so-called "", Ale, having made such a path, it is necessary to know about deaks exchanges:

• processor repair conserve more energy, І z this moment it may not be necessary to install and operate the block of life, so the varto will have a more efficient model;
• as a result of the “dispersal”, the quantity of energy is increased by the crystal, so that both wines and other components will be heat up shvidshe(Come back with the effects of overheating, only an efficient cooling system is needed);
• if there is an increase in the supply of electricity, the obov'yazkovo blame electromagnetic switches, Zokrema, in the robotic tires of data (you can change the number of transferred data to change).

How to find out the frequency of the processor of your computer?

Here are some of the main ways to recognize the clock frequency and in such a way to determine the productivity of a PC:

1. Look at the documentation, I'll give it to the scribe at once with a computer or a laptop. The technical passport of the obov'yazkovo specifies the type of processor and its clock frequency. Since there is no way to write down the clock frequency of the assigned processor model, you can recognize it by putting it in a row as a joke poke system processor name, laptop model, etc.
2. You can recognize the clock frequency by becoming familiar with the power of the PC system. what is necessary for which growth? First, go to the "Control Panel"; in a different way, go to the section "Power of the system". In this section, indicators of the productivity of the computer, including the clock frequency, are displayed.
3. Speed ​​up the possibilities, you can go into what you can, dotrimuyuyuchis deakim clumsy rules (for personal computers stinks alone, for laptops - іnші). Golovne, to the cob of the system, press one “enchantment” button (for example, Del, Esc or F12).
4. Install the CPU-Z utility on your computer, as it is absolutely cost-free, and її the main recognition is to help the core recognize all the necessary some information about the processor, including its productivity and clock frequency.

Also, you already know what the clock frequency of a personal computer or a laptop is, as the values ​​\u200b\u200bof indicators can be for the speed of robotic technology, but you can choose the frequency, and we support that this information will help you become even more professions him and a successful coristuvachy PC.

The processor is perhaps the most important component of a computer, even if it is the most important part of the data processing. Up to one of the most important characteristics cpu clock frequency, Yaka vkazuє on the number of vikovanih operations in one second. However, it is similarly appointed for this parameter to be miserable, in order to understand the truth of its importance, so we will try to go into more detail in this diet.

The scientifically appointed clock frequency sounds like an offensive rank: all the number of operations that can be completed in a single second and die in Hertz. But why, to say richly, is the very loneliness of the world taken as the basis of the bula? In physics, the value shows the number of collaterals for a song interval of an hour, right there, in essence, everything is identical, only the replacement of a coliva is covered by the number of operations, so that the value for a song interval of an hour is repeated.

If you are talking specifically about processors, then not identical operations are carried out in it, all parameters are covered here. Well, in general, their total number and є clock frequency.

At the same time, the technical capabilities of the processor are on the most equal, Therefore, the value of Hertz does not change, but here it is more pleasant to change megahertz or gigahertz. The reason for the destruction of that, schob not to add the majestic number of zeros, to them themselves is the adoption of a human size (div. Table).

By what rank is the clock frequency secured?

In order to understand, it is necessary to understand a little about physics, however, we will try to expand the topic of "human" mine, so that the chain of mind would be enlightened, be it like a koristuvachev. To understand this folding calculation process, it is necessary to provide a list of processor components, so what else to add to this parameter:

• clock resonator - made from quartz crystal, which is placed in a special storage shell;
• clock generator - a detail, how to rob the transformation of the pulse into an impulse;
• data tire.

As soon as the voltage is applied to the clock resonator, the voltage is adjusted to the electric jet.

These data are transmitted to the clock generator, which converts them into pulses. For the help of tire data, their transfer is carried out, and the result is already calculated without intermediary coristuvachev.

Behind such a technique, there is a change in clock frequency. Even though everything is borderlinely understood, impersonal people are wrongly taken as counting, and apparently it is the interpretation of pardon. The first for everything is tied up with it, because the processor can not have one core, but a sprat.

What rank is the clock frequency tied to the cores?

In fact, a multi-core processor is in no way different from a single-core processor, except that there is not one clock resonator in the new one, but two or more. For sleepy robots, the stench is covered with an additional tire of data.

And the very same thing here seems to be a lot of people: the clock frequency of dekilkoh cores is not expected. It’s just that during the processing of data, a redistribution of the coating on the skin of the nuclei is carried out, but it does not mean that it will be strictly proportional, that the speed of the processing will not be greater. For the butt, I base some games, in which retailers do not allow the possibility of redistribution of the focus on the cores and the game works only on one.

For the butt, we can look at the vipadok with chotirma pishokhodami. The stench is going as far as possible, entrusting one by one, and some of them carry an important burden. As soon as you begin to turn yourself in, you can take your luggage, so as not to waste your speed, and if you don’t stink, you won’t be able to go faster and earlier than reaching the final point, even if everyone is so shifting on the border of their abilities.

Before the speech, seemingly, with, the number of nuclei plays a significant role. That virobniki began to install more and more of them, but at the same time, remember that the data bus can simply not cope and the productivity can not be those that increase, but it is significant that processors with a smaller number of cores give up. For example, in given moment Intel releases I7 processors, in which there can be a total of two cores, with which wines it will be more data richer, lower with eight cores (as a rule, the company is given and did not release models with such a number of cores, AMD processors fiyno buvayut i ten nuclear). The retailers simply focus not only on the increased clock frequency, but also on the architecture of the processor as a whole. Tse mozhe stouvatisya, as zbіlshennya bus data between clock resonators, and other aspects.

For synchronization and convenience of work other outbuildings, What can be different swidcode, the clock frequency is changed. Whether the command is victorious in one or a few cycles (tacts), and the speed of the number of impulses (frequency) sets the rhythm of the work of all warehouse systems and is rich in what the speed of the work is called. Dzherelom clock frequency є okremy block - generator, which represents itself. The more pulses in one second the generator gives, the more the number of operations is calculated, the more the computer works. Itself so, until recently, it was booming, but with the help of rich nuclear processors, the situation has changed. Also, the clock frequency is the number of pulses per second, which synchronizes the computer's robot.

Today, the productivity of a robotic computer is influenced not only by the clock frequency, but by the cache, the number of cores, the speed of the robotic video card, and the architecture of the processor. For example, today it is possible to noticeably low clock frequency, but to work richer. Tse reaches the path of the software under the number of operations between such a rank, the operation with a smaller speed of processing is more complicated - it will increase After the appearance of rich-core processors, the increase in clock frequency became not relevant. The current speed of the robotic computer, in order of this parameter, is determined by the number of cores, and data in other parts of the system.

During the preparation process, the processors are tested in different modes, at different temperatures and pressure. As a result of the tests, the maximum operating clock frequency is shown, so that it can be marked. But it's not the most important, it's understandable, like a processor break, when the clock frequency is richly increased.

The variability of rich-core processors caused another problem: the temperature change of the processor. Due to the increase in clock frequency, the processor saw heat, which led to overheating and malfunctions in the robot. The multi-core processors made it possible to increase the swidcode at low frequencies. A lot of current models in case of an inconsistent occupancy can reduce the clock frequency, quickly reduce energy and see heat. Over the course of an hour, the processor cools down, which leads to a decrease in fan speed, a change and a decrease in noise (at high speeds, the fans “sound” loudly).

For not less important is the clock frequency of the video card. Here there is a direct staleness - the more important parameter is, the more svidet is the promotion of ready-made pixels and the choice of texture data. Ale install a high-speed video card and a low-speed processor and a small RAM don't feel like it. The parameters of all of these outbuildings are balanced. Only in this moment the computer will work with high speed and without problems.

Schematic diagram of the processor

ceramic block- keruє by the robot of all blocks of the processor.

Arithmetic logic block- vikonu arithmetic and logical calculations.

register- block of data saving and intermediate results calculation - internal operational memory of the processor.

decoding block- converting data into a double system.

Front vibrator block- otrimu command vіd attach (keyboard and so on) and fetch instructions in the system memory.

Cache memory (or just cache) 1st level- take care of instructions and data often.

Cache memory 2nd level- take the data often.

bus block- serve for the introduction and display of information.

This scheme is suitable for P6 architecture processors. Processors from the Pentium Pro to the Pentium III were created in different architectures. Pentium 4 processors are built on the new Intel® NetBurst architecture. In Pentium 4 processors, the cache of the 1st level of subdivisions into two parts is the data cache and the instruction cache.

processor specifications

The main characteristics of the processor are its clock frequency, capacity and size of the cache of the 1st and 2nd levels.

Frequency - tse kіlkіst kolivan per second. The clock frequency is the number of cycles per second. At zastosuvanni to the processor:

Clock frequency- tse kіlkіst operations, like a processor can vikonate per second.

So the more operations per second the processor can win, the more the wins work. For example, a processor with a clock frequency of 40 MHz performs 40 million operations per second, with a frequency of 300 Mg - 300 million operations per second, with a frequency of 1 GHz - 1 billion operations per second.

Until 2003, the clock frequency of processors reached 3 GHz.

There are two types of clock frequency - internal and external.

Internal clock frequency- clock frequency, with which the robot is running in the middle of the processor.

External clock frequency or system bus frequency- clock frequency, with which the exchange of data between the processor and the computer's operational memory is taken into account.

Until 1992, the internal and external frequencies in processors were increased, and in 1992, Intel introduced the 80486DX2 processor, in which the internal and external frequencies were different - the internal frequency was 2 times higher than the external . Two types of such processors were released with frequencies of 25/50 MHz and 33/66 MHz, then Intel released the 80486DX4 processor with a built-in internal frequency (33/100 MHz).

At about the same time, other computer companies also began to launch processors with a double internal frequency, and IBM began to launch processors with a triple internal frequency (25/75 MHz, 33/100 MHz and 40/120 MHz).

IN modern processors, For example, at a processor clock frequency of 3 GHz, the system bus frequency is 800 MHz.

Processor capacity depends on the number of yogo registers.

The computer can operate at once with a set of single pieces of information. Tsey nabіr deposit in the capacity of internal registers. The category is a collection of single information. For one working cycle, the computer can process a lot of information, as it can fit in registers. If registers can save 8 units of information, then the stink is 8-bit, if the processor is 8-bit, if the register is 16-bit, then the processor is 16-bit, etc. The greater the capacity of the processor, the greater the number of information in the wine can be processed in one clock cycle, which means that the processor is faster.

Processor Pentium 4 є 32-bit.

Volume of cache memory of the 1st and 2nd level also affects the productivity of the processor.

For the Pentium III processor, the cache memory of the 1st level should be 16 Kb, the cache memory of the 2nd level should be 256 Kb.

In Pentium 4 processors, the cache memory of the 1st level for data can be 8 KB, the cache memory of the 1st level for the instructions for recharging for 12,000 instructions is in order, and the amount of cache memory is 2 -th equal to become 512 Kb.