1 - dzherelo light energy (visible area); 2 - rotary vidbivach; 3 - dzherelo light energy (ultraviolet region); 4 - optical system, which directs the flow of energy to the input field; 5 - input section; 6 - optical system, like a parallel flow of light energy; 7 - dispersing element (prism or diffraction grating); 8 - optical system, which directs the flow of energy to the output field; 9 - wihіdna shіlina; 10 - optical system, like a form of energy, to pass through the cuvette; 11 - cuvette; 12 - photo trim; 13 - analog-digital conversion; 14 - micro-EOM; 15 - indicator; 16 - operator panel; 17 - communication interface from call EOM and restructuring attachment

Swivel drive (2) direct light power from one of the dies (1 or 3), through the optical system (4) to the input slot (5) of the monochromator. When the monochromator goes through the slit (9), there is a monochromatic effect of light energy with a singing wavelength λ. The installation of the necessary additional energy is most often needed to go along the path of the winter kuta fall of the polychromatic flow of light energy over the area of ​​the dispersing element (7). The optical system (10) has the form of a luminous flow in such a rank that, with the minimum allowable proportion of the pre-sorted setting of the cuvette (11) in the cuvette, the geometry of the flow did not change.

The polychromatic light from the dzherela pass through a monochromator, which is placed on the color of the component. Monochromatic viprominuvannya with a discrete interval in a decilka of nanometers to pass through that part of the butt, de-roztasche at once with pre-juvenile breakdown.

BASIC UNIVERSITY spectrophotometer

DZHERELO SVITLA

The UV / VIS spectrophotometer (ultraviolet + visible light) has two lights: for visible spectrum and ultraviolet light - from 200 to 390 nm.

Tungsten light can serve as a visible light, as a rule, halogen lamps, but there is a steady flow of light in the range of 380 - 950 nm, being stable and reliable light energy from an average term of 500 hours of service.

Yak dzherelo UV vikoristovyutsya water or deuterium lamps. Ultraviolet lamps, which are capable of replacing deuterium, have a high intensity of the flow and an uninterrupted spectrum in the range from 200 to 360 nm.

ditch

You can see how you can see it in a special attachment. For skin appearance, the stench of the stench. For solid ones - special containers, and with spectral vimіras of rare sparks, special containers are placed from a quartz rock, so called cuvettes.

A large number of spectrophotometers have standard cuvettes, which are intended for such a change, as it transmits a horizontal path of light exchange. The main shortcomings of such cuvettes are those, but only a small part of the eye (about 10%) hangs in the light. At the time of the great value of the education, or the availability of it in a small community, you can choose a micro-cuvette or an ultra-micro cuvette with a volume of 50 or 2.5 µl. Ditches of even small parties evoke capillary powers, and identify problems with the statements of the pukhirts of the fortune, as well as in the process of degassing. Nareshty, from such cuvettes it is foldable to pull back at a time. Standard cuvettes may have new dimensions: 12.5 12.5 45 mm, and inner - 10 10 mm. Cuvette with a smaller internal volume, which can be dispensed by one vyrobnik may of the same size, but standard, ale internal, for example 10 1.25 mm.

dispersing agent

In spectrophotometers, as a dispersing element, it is most often prisms and diffraction gratings.

The diffraction lattice is technologically more folding virib, lower prism. A large number of lattices implanted in Danish hours are made by the method of vialing and holographic copying and are plates with a large number of parallel strokes - up to several hundred per millimeter.

The main test for winning the prizes in the spectrophotometer is є її low partiality.

The overvoltage of diffraction gratings of the polarity is in the fact that the stench will prevent the linear dispersion of light over the entire range of visible and UV spectra. A negative moment is the concentration of diffraction gratings.

One of the most important characteristics of monochromators is the smug transmission, which can be found in units of nanometers.

If the interference filters give a transmission width in the range of 6-20 nm, then the prisms and diffraction gratings give a larger amount of smog - less than 5 nm, and also, more "purity" (monochrome, more light). Smuga transmission is one of the most important characteristics of the spectrophotometer. The change in the smog of the passing of the heavier adjustment of the separate building of the spectrophotometer is a significant characteristic of the quality of the spectrophotometric attachments.

monochromator

The range of spectral attachments - spectrophotometers - is based on the fact that, in some physical systems, the light appears to be different. Such systems are called dispersible. Name it in the quality of a dispersing element, a prism or a diffraction lattice. Attachments, which allow the distribution of polychromatic light into the monochromatic spectrum of viprominuvannya, are called monochromators.

Functional diagram of a monochromator with a prism.

-input size; 2-object, which form is a parallel flow of light energy; 3-prism; 4 - an object that directs the energy supply to the screen; 5 - screen; 6 - wihіdna shіlina

Shchilina (1), a polychromatic streak of light energy is falling, located in the focal area of ​​the linzi (2). Qia chastina will be called a collimator. Enter from the object (2) a parallel flow of light energy falls on the prism (3). As a result of the dispersion (the accumulation of the accumulation of the indicator of the breakage from the age of hvili), the light of the young people, the light of the young children, the light to go with the prisms of the young kutas. If in the focal area of ​​the object (4) put the screen (5), then the lens will focus on the parallel flows of energy for the children of the day in the winter for the screen. By turning the prism (3), it is possible to scan through the slit (6) the monochromatic energy flows in the vyprominuvannya spectrum. Often in the quality of the dispersing element, a diffraction grating appears, which is like a metal plate, on which parallel lines of the same strokes are applied, rostered on strictly the same sides, one in one. A diffraction lattice is shown on the little one, which is folded from parallel to one to one widths of the same width b, which are folded to the same places a one to one. Sum (a + b) є the period of the whole structure and is called the post-lattice d.

Functional diagram of a monochromator with a diffraction grating.

- input plate; 2 - an object, a form of parallel flow of light energy; 3 - diffraction grating; 4 - an object that directs the energy supply to the screen; 5 - screen; 6 - wihіdna shіlina

Through the input slot (1), the polychromatic flow of light energy by the lens of the object (2) transforms into a parallel flow, which passes through the slots of the diffraction grating (3). At the skin dots on the screen (5), which is stitched in the focal area of ​​the line of the object (4), take up those exchanges, which, to the line, are parallel to each other and widened by the singing cut Q to the right edge. That is why the illumination at point P on the screen (5) is the result of the interference of secondary schools, as it expands both from the children of the same school, as well as from the old schools. If it’s straight, widening in one direction, the second one will come to point P in one phase and if it’s one phase, and if one doesn’t miss one. In such a rank, on the screen, the cherguvannya of light and dark smogs is promoted. A smart formulation of the maximums of the diffraction grating, so that if you fail one at the time of interference, you should try to do this, if the progress increases to the whole number of needles. The presence of the shape of the maxima of the different levels of growth from the cut Q of the diffraction grating rotates by the formula: d * sinQ = k - 1, de k = 0, 1, 2.

As soon as the light of the young children falls on the lattice, then the maxima for the young children grows up from the small kuts Q to the cob directly widened light. To that, the diffraction grating has a polychromatic light in the diffraction spectrum and a dispersive attachment is implanted.

In the modern world, the last word of speech, the substance of the genus viprominewan, is important for the later technological outlets. The high-precision analysis of the object allows you to read about the new data, as it is unwise to reject the traditional metrological methods. For such purposes in other spheres a spectrometer is chosen. Tse of pristіy, for the help of which it is possible to start the characteristics of the colony pokrittіv, the luminous vypromіnuvanny and the elementary warehouse of solid materials.

spectrometer establishment

The starting point of the spectrometer is its analysis, which gives an indication of the development of speech and the parameters of the condensed mediums. And in the quality of the whole object, it is possible to form a viprominuvannya, ridin, solid words and navi molecules.

The skin spectrometer can be used with specific elements or middle ranges, moreover, in the adjacent frequency ranges. Use universal models with extended operational characteristics, or for robots with such equipment, special mechanical manipulations are required.

For what purpose is the spectrometry of the universal and special purpose? First go for the generation of parameters in gray impulses for an additional frequency comb, and others are stuck for high schools, tied with the same type of vimirs in singing minds. For example, it is periodically required to fix the light range on a working maidan.

The current year also added an expanded quantum model of spectrometers, as they know the storage in the streaming scanned materials, and control a wide range of different words and middle ranges on the high level.

Optical scale will fit

The main working components of the spectrometer are the input slot and the diffraction grating. Shchilina serve to pass and visualize vipromynyuvan, which will come to the analyzer through a special emptying. This is the beginning of the light, which is directed to the optical area of ​​the detector. The input contour can be as wide as it is in the form of the spectrometer behind it, - the whole range is from 5 to 800 microns, in the middle. The height of the slit in the standard size should be 1 mm.

Diffraction grating of the spectrometer

Not less than the diffraction grating of the spectrometer. It is a component that generates a range according to the amount of light needed, and also flows into the detector's separate building. In practice, a lattice is given to indicate the frequency of light strokes.

Use holographic and narrative grilles. The rise between them is equipped with a configurable distribution of laser beams on a light-sensitive sphere and with backward spectral characteristics.

vidi spectrometers

In the midst of a wide range of danichs, you can see the onset of the following:

• Bliskomiri. Tse spectrometer, scho focus on vimir blisk. It stagnates in vipads, if the parameter is in the form of a characteristic.
• Spectrophotometer. For an additional annex, the spectral warehouse is analyzed for additional visualization of the electromagnetism in the optical range. Vyhіdni danі is given to the viglyadі photometry and can be stored for control of the friend.
• Colorimeter. In the given vipadku move about the type of color spectrometer. A set of adjustments for adjusting the intensity and temperature of the output corrected for the control collinear scale.
• Tochkovo. Visualization of the exposition in photography and cinematography.
• Spectroradiometer. The basis of this apparatus is an optical system, which accumulates the spectra of virobules of children. A number of scanners are identified with a spectrum, and then this data is transformed into an electrical signal.
• Brightness meter. Pristіy, viznacha yaskravіst svіtlovyh dzherel.
• the device provides information about illumination.

Attach you can visually close the skin with these functions, and you can add a few more operations. Bagatofunctional industrial spectrometry of building with light, farbs and other working tools in the context of the development of new parameters.

Portable and stationary equipment

The quality of the classification in the big world is based on technical, design and communal characteristics. Portable (mobile, kishenkovy) annexes can make small testers or multimeters. The price of compact equipment, which is possible to control the color on the surfaces with a folding geometry, is rather uncomfortable for the stationary possession. Moreover, being unaffected on small sizes, make this type efficiently handle the analysis of small sizes, just from the texture and the degree of graininess.

A stationary spectrometer is a very large functional device, for the provision of straining optical elements and for processing of the data. As a rule, there is a microprocessor with a system of visual representation of the established spectra. Koristuvach can work with a powerful LCD-display and keyboard possession.

Principle of light spectrometers

Dіє spectrometer by the next rank:

• At the first stage, it is necessary to reestablish and accumulate the spectrum of the light, for which information to pass the digitized signal for further analysis in a special program.
• The processing of the primary light flow is carried in the optical fiber to the world passing through the aperture.
• Far away, the light goes to the already guessed diffraction lattice, as it is growing because of the small cut.
• At the final stage, it is fixed by the photon detector and is converted into an electrical signal, which is processed in a computer.

And what about a practical light spectrometer with software security? Through the USB port, the device transmits an electronic computer, in which the signal is interpreted. In the simplest models, graphs with a variety of spectra are displayed according to the amount of data. Large folding technology of additional processing and numerical spectral operations on the basis of the given data and T. D.

Principle of the farb spectrometer

You can use it for accurate visualization of images on textured and textured surfaces. Yak pratsyuє spectrometer farb? A bezposeredno rejection of the given vison is an optical system, for which an analysis of information and processing is carried out in the aperture nozzles. Most of these devices are equipped with pulsed xenon lamps, which have a spectrum from 360 to 740 nm in the middle. At the exit, a graph with colorimetric values ​​is stored.

visnovok

Spectrometry, with all the foldability of its annex, has a large area of ​​storage. Їх vikoristovuyut in scientific preliminaries, during control of products on virobnitstv, in education when evaluating the quality of the design, as well as in the Russian government and butovy spheres. On the right in that, the spectrometer is a complete set, which controls the characteristics, which can be important for the skin people in the fallowness of the surroundings. Light analysis, for example, allows organizing a more comfortable illumination in enterprises, as well as in household minds. Robot with a headlamp, in his own heart, allow an ordinary motorist to take the optimal amount of lacofarbovy for body repair, and to make sure that the material is successfully prepared from the texture given by the designer.

HOBBY FOR Photometric vimіryuvannya.

For photometric vimiryuvan vikoristovuyut two large groups of attachments: photocolorimetry and spectrophotometry. In colorimeters, the required spectral ranges can be seen behind additional light filters, which can be used to encircle the spectral ranges, in which visualization can be carried out. In spectrophotometers, spectral ranges are seen behind additional prisms or diffraction gratings, so that they can be set in a given range.

Specifically, the last of the operations when the optical power is reduced, or the transmission is stored in the design of the spectrophotometer, or the colorimeter.

However, the main principle is to be invisible. You will need to install the necessary amount of light, vibrate the light filter on the colorimeter or wrap the handle on the spectrophotometer. Then set to zero. For the whole, in the light of the time, support the cuvette with a standard distance. Depending on the width of the line, it is necessary to show that the width of the line is shown according to the given values ​​given by the instruction. At the offensive stage, the standard solution is to stop until it reaches the level of optical power or the transmission rate.

Modern spectrophotometry allows you to achieve a highly monochromatic flow of vipromyuvannya. Smell stagnate for concentration analysis and in the case of implantation of spectra.

Adjustment and principle of the spectrophotometer. The structural diagram of the spectrophotometer can be presented at the next main blocks:

dzherelo light, monochromator, cuvette visualization, photocell, restructuring prism.

The light beam from the jerel of light is passed into the monochromator through the input slot and is expanded by diffraction grains or a prism into the spectrum. There is a monochromatic potential for vyprominuvannya, where to come from the vidual gap in the cuvette display, after entering the control and delaying the images. Viprominuvannya, which went through the cuvette, wasted on a photocell, which transforms the light energy into electricity. The electrical signal can be activated and re-energized.

Monochromatori. The monochromator is a central optical system that can be seen from the wide spectrum of the dzherel light viprominuvannya singing dose of hvily. Tse glimpse the prisms, in a simple way you wrinkle the light of the children, or the diffraction gratings. In the visible area, the stench can be viscous, but in the ultraviolet area, the stench is not suitable, the splinters will start to glaze even at λ< 400 нм, поэтому призмы делают из кварца.

Yak monochromators are also frozen in diffraction gratings, which represent a plane-parallel plate with parallel lines applied to them - grooves. Bilium light through diffraction on parallel grooves folds into an uninterrupted spectrum. Play in monochromators with a combination of seeing a beam of light with a singing range of additional prisms, and then open it again with burrs. So to decorate the suvoro monochromatic light. The main reason for changing the diffraction gratings of the field is in the fact that it is possible to achieve a different building, and some of them are directly proportional to the power of the lines. In addition, in the whole range of levels of diffraction gratings may not be correct, so as the prism monochromator was connected, the increase in the number of diffraction gratings would change.

Cuveti. Doslidzhuvana recocinate at the general point of view and in the optically insight a vessel for vimiryuvan - cuvette. Name the cuvette holder of the medium for chotiroh cuvettes. Oscillations are clad in ultraviolet light, for carrying out vimiruvan in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, in a quartz cuvette. For vimіryuvanny in the visible area, you can pick up plastic or glass cuvette. When robotic with flying, or chemically active speech tubes, the cuvette is curved with crys.

Oscillations of the cuvette are installed in the spectrophotometer, which is a storage part of the optical system, with which it is necessary to be twisted even more accurately. Grunt and brood on the sides of the cuvette strongly grows and glaze light, creating the result of vimiriv. In particular, memory is required for robots in the ultraviolet area. The cuvette can be wiped with soft cloths, for example, on the bottom. It is not recommended to vikoristovuvati for tsikh purposes filter papir. Oscillations of organic molecules are glazed in the ultraviolet region, but in any case it is impossible to stick the optical (penetrating) glasses of the cuvette. Rozchin is more beautiful to pour into the cuvette, putting the cuvette holder in front of the front. Ditches to finish kryhki, especially quartz, that is why you need to be careful with them, do not allow mechanical ears.

Instead of the cuvette, it is homogeneous - it is necessary to think about the rejection of the given dues. It is necessary to quit for the team, so that the solutions are not cloudy. Especially zavazhayut vimіram pohirtzі povіtrya, greatly increase the growth. It is not possible to pour even a cold drop into the cuvette, the splinters on the last walls of the cuvette and condensation of water watered, and the walls become opaque.

As the cuvette is enclosed by third-party houses, it is then mixed with distilled water and (abo) a distributor, in which case the speech is resolved. The cuveti can be mitigated with soft detergents. Miti cuvette is not recommended for concentrated acids or meadows, as well as other herbal agents.

The cuvette needs to be filled up to such a level, so that it goes through the whole ball through the ball. Most often, the cuvette is used with an optical path of 1 cm, and 2.5-3 ml is poured into it. In such cuvette, 4-5 ml should be included; Є cuvette with an optical path 50, 20, 5, 2 and 1 mm.

Photocell. Photoelements will transform light energy into electricity. The electrical signal can be activated and re-energized.

Photons, bombarding the surface of the photocell, vibrating from the electronic, a number of proportional light intensity. Tsі elektroni fly up to a positive elektrode. As a result, in a closed lanceyuz, an electric strum, which is restructured according to the fall of the spring on the support, is located in the whole lanceuz. It’s possible to resist, if such a signal is compensated for by a potentiometer, in the form of a grading unit, the sensor can be resumed without a precession.

Photomultipliers are more sensitive, less simple photoelements.

The price is seen through those, like the electronics, from the photosensitive ball, to get up with a high pressure, and through the plug in the gas, the second electrons come through, and to produce the string until it grows old.

Width of the slit. From the size of the line, lay down the range of the amount of light, which falls on the eye. Therefore, for the rejection of the superior results, it is necessary to practice at least the university for the given minds to experiment. If the width of the line is correctly shaped, then with a change in the size of the window it is shown that it will not change.

sucking

Spectrophotometry can be used in different ranges from ultraviolet to infrared. In the case of a fall, attach a significant value to it.

appraisal

The main feature of spectrophotometers in polygraphic galusa is the accurate linearization and calibration of processes in a friend. Spectrophotometry companies GretagMacbeth, X-Rite, Techkon, Konica-Minolta and other virobniks provide the ability to carry out point-to-point and automated operations for the emergence of high-quality ICC-profiles.

design

Two main circuits of spectrophotometers are pointed on the little ones, so that the spectral aperture efficiency of the given object is displayed according to the working standard with respect to the spectral characteristics:

Vimіryuvaniy vrazok hangs with a monochromatic light.

constructive schemes

Є two circuits to induce spectrophotometers: a spectrophotometer at the view of a wedge-like plate;

At the viglyadi wedge-like plate

Spectrophotometer near a wedge-like plate

The spectrophotometer (Fig. 1) is placed near the wedge-like plate, one of the surfaces of the deposition is thin, partially skipping a ball, and on the top of the surface there is a pokritty, which is added, partially skipping the light.

The principle of the robotic spectrophotometer of the photographs on the reconstruction of the interferential smogs of the standing light by the path of the design of the image of the interferential smogs on the photosensitive lines. With the whole method of processing the signal, it appears from the traditional Fur'є spectroscopy that it is not necessary to adapt the signal not to the clock, but to the wide frequency. The spectrophotometer can easily grow up to incoherent light emission.

heterodyne circuit

Heterodyne scheme of reception of light viprominuvannya.

For the whole, the spectrophotometer is supplied with a different laser at a frequency of vyprominuvannya, so that it changes from the first one to the frequency of the light bit (Fig. 2). At the same time, when another laser is prompted, the interference of smog is established practically with the same period d, and on a thin ball, like on the back, there are light beats. Otrimanі electric signals restruyuyut and give two-way re-incarnation of Fur'є.

lightfilters

The polygraph can have the following lights:

• POL - polarization filter. Vikoristovuєatsya for rejection of the moss spectrum of writing the farbi.
• D65 - Stay in place for imitation of D65.
• UV-cut will become stagnant when the optical density of the porches is reduced, in which the fluorescent optical appearance becomes visible.
• No - the value of the daytime light filter. Zzvychay vikoristovutsya izore sklo, scho seizeє the spectrophotometer is seen from the saw.

dzherela vippromіnyuvannya

The main dzherel vippromіnyuvannya є:

• A(Light lamp rozzharyuvannya, 2856 K);
• Z(Indirectly sleepy light, 6774 K);
• D(Denne light, 5000 K);
• D65(Denne light, 6500 K);
• F11(Fluorescent performance of the high range for the Philips TL84 tube);
• etc.

optical circuit

geometriya vimiryuvannya

• 45/0 (Visually hang with one or more decilcom with light beams, the axes of which are set up 45 ± 5 ° normal to the surface of the eye).
• 0/45 10 °).
• D / 0(One can visually hang diffusely behind the aid of the integrating sphere. 10 % inner surface, which is spherical).
• 0 / D(Visually hang with a light beam, hanging from a warehouse from the normal until the edge of the cut is no more 10 °... Seeing the urge to climb behind the help of the integrating sphere).

Modification of the main geometries in vimiryuvan

For the inclusion of mirror warehouse glossy materials, the light fixture is raised from cut to 8 ° to normal, and, symmetrically, to normal, a blister paste is installed. Light, which is not consumed at a time by a cut of 8 ° (zavdyaki pastzі blisk), do not look directly into the mirror, also, reflected by the sudden urge to store only from the diffuse light. In this regard, geometriya vimiryuvannya stan D / 8... If it is a mirror component of inclusions, then the meaning of this is D / 8: i(The paste is closed). As soon as it is recognized, then the geometry of the definition is D / 8: e(Viscrit paste).

Specification

Spectral distribution- minimal crocodile hvili, signals at the edges of which it is possible to develop on the spectrum. Name the croc, for which the magnitude of the increase is 10 nm, which allows, with a high level of accuracy, to carry out the modification of the spectrum, whether it be viprominuvan. Accurate spectrophotometry, which is stable for pre-adolescent purposes, can be used to modify the spectrum in larger intervals of 5 nm and 1 nm, the efficiency will be accurate when applied to polygraphs.

spectral range The whole range in the boundaries of which can be used is a spectrophotometer. For a larger range of colors in the polygraph, assess the spectrum of light emission in the visible range of levels from 380 to 730 nm. For children of the type, it is necessary to evaluate the ultraviolet and the infrared storage of the viprominuvannya. Spectrophotometry to measure only the spectrum of vipromyuvannya. All of the characteristics are viewed by spectral data.

interdevice use- a sequence of vimіryuvanih value of one and the same vymeryua, how to look for the help of a standard and pre-juvenile attachment.

repetition Make sure that the accuracy of the operation is correct, so that these operators should be able to use them with the same adaptations of the same and the same images.

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 rock.

MINISTRY AGENCY BEFORE ESTABLISHMENT

State Health Establishment of All Professional Education

Ural State University

im. A.M. Gorky

Faculty of physics

Department of Foreign and Molecular Physics

Course robot

The physical principle of spectrophotometry.

pristіy spectrophotometer

Ekaterinburg

Entry

1. Literary oglyad

1.1 History of development of optical spectrometry

1.2 Physical bases, on which the Vimiryuvan technique is prompted

1.2.1 Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law

1.3 Claying in solids and molecules

1.3.1 Zone theory of crystals

1.3.2 Theory of the crystal field

1.3.3 Theory of molecular orbits

2. Absorption measuring device

2.1 Types of absorption spectrometers

2.2 Types of absorption spectrometers in the visible and near ultraviolet range

2.2.1 Colorimetry and photocolorimetry

2.2.2 Spectrophotometry

2.2.3 double-helix spectrophotometry

2.2.4 Spectrophotometry with photodiode grates

3. Attachment and main universities of the spectrophotometer

3.1 Attach the spectrophotometer

3.2 Main universities of the spectrophotometer

3.2.1 Dzherelo light

3.2.2 Cuveti

3.2.3 Dispersant

3.2.4 monochromator

4. Experimental part

visnovok

List of Literature

Entry

Optical spectroscopy All the methods of the clearest and most accurate analysis, based on the interconnection of light with living and inanimate matter, are considered to be reasonable.

term light means electromagnetism from the far region of the ultraviolet range to the near region of the infrared range. For more than two hundred years, optical spectroscopy is used in other fields of science, technology and medicine, including chemistry, biology, physics and astronomy. The specificity of optical spectroscopy is explained by the fact that skin speech has its own spectral powers, which are indicative of the spectral powers of those words. Speech can be analyzed both in a number of ways and in a way. On the basis of some of the other methods of spectroscopy, such as NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), EPR (electronic paramagnetic resonance), mesbauer, or mass spectrometry, for analysis for additional practical German spectroscopy. Vimіryuvannya vіdіvnі opticheskіvіvnіvіvіvіvіvі vіdzhiny vіvili hvili or energy vipromіnuvannya ("spectrum") or clock parameters ("kinetics") will not provide valuable information, as not depending on the methods of analysis. Optical spectral analysis is a whole-hearted method. However, the market of spectrophotometers has been expanding for the whole hour in conjunction with the appearance of new methods. Most of the proponated spectrophotometry is often developed according to size, shape, consistency and, in the finest rakhunka, according to the price. That is why the tendency of polygons is faster in victorian specialized spectrophotometers around the world, and not the bulky ones available for all the zasosuvan "high-quality installations" with the most beautiful characteristics.

Cycle of robots:

1.vivchennya theoretical foundations of optical spectrophotometry

2. Knowing about the attachment and principles of the robotic spectrophotometer by finding practical robotics on the UV-1700 Shimadzu spectrophotometer (Japan).

Pre-detection of the spectral abundance and intensity of the Nd 3+ signal in terms of concentration in beryl glasses containing Nd 3+.

1. Literary oglyad

1.1 History of development of optical spectrometry

The word "spectrum" in the Latin word means "spelling" or "scheme". Isaac Newton, in 1666, was the first to split the dormouse light into spectral warehouses for help with the prism (Fig. 1). In 1758, the Margrave was in the first place, vikoristovuyuyuyuchuyuyuyuyu coloru half'ya, vіdkriv the way of visualization of speech. In 1802, the English physicist Voldaston explained Newton's experiment with a prism, having improved it and first promoted the number of dark lines in the sleep spectrum. At the same hour, Herschel and Talbot conducted experiments with half a light, and In 1834, Talbot spectroscopically broke reddish colors of half a strontium and reddish colors in lithium, so that he was involved in the origins of analytical optical spectroscopy.

fig. 1 Isaac Newton followed the help of a scrying prism by splitting a parallel dormouse light into a spectrum

The new method of obtaining the names of optical spectroscopy has been developing since 1834. until now. I pay special respect to the robots coming to the fraunhofer physics hallway, by breaking the spectroscopy on diffraction gratings and taking 1,500 lines into the spectrum of the sleepy light.

spectrophotometry optical spectrophotometer vimir

Until the 20th century, there were no theories, which could explain the folding behavior in detail, as it manifests itself in all the words. Some of the most important additions to the current day's improvement of spectral manifestations were made by the following. In 1885, the Swiss doctrine of Balmer led to a series of so-called spectral "Balmer's lines" in the spectrum. In 1897, the English teachings of Thompson led the electron, and in 1911, the first scientist Ernest Rutherford led the atom nucleus. In 1900 r Max Planck formulated the first laws of quantum theory. Werner Heisenberg (1932) and Ervin Schredinger (1933) rejected the Nobel Prize for pioneering robots in quantum mechanics. The concept of quantum mechanics was developed by Paul Dirac and Wolfgang Pauli (1945), who also rejected the Nobel Prize.

So, as the history of the development of science is intertwined with the history of development of methods in vimiryuvan and analysis, then the history of optical spectroscopy in the larger world is imaged by the history of astronomy and atomic history. Only in the 19th century, molecular spectroscopy has become a hard-working analytical method. For example, with the aid of a spectrophotometer, which is characteristic of "smog" hemoglobin, it is possible to develop the shelter and barnyards of the red color, so that the present-day crime can be known by dropping in a small speck of blood.

In a span of ten years in the spectroscopy of the vicorists, special tungsten lamps were heated up, prisms, diffraction gratings and light detectors, which surrounded the results with a narrow range of visible areas between 500 and 700 nm.

Until the 40s of the 20th century, all types of commercial spectrophotometers were available (General Electric spectrophotometer, Kenko spectrophotometer, model DM Coleman), before that, they were very efficient, and the smells were carried out in the vicinity. At that hour, "vimir" the chasing for the purpose of the concentration was vibrated visually to the last days of the two fields, as before, as it was necessary to change the color tank of Nagel's anomaloscope at once. Celebrity photometer Pulfrich Zeiss (bought a thousand thousand in Nimechchin) is tedious and very efficient in such a way, for the other reason, so called S-filters in the visible range (interferencing through to 20 filters from 15 nm) For 1941, over 800 articles were published on the basis of the concentration of clinically important components in the blood and those of the organisms of various spectrophotometers.

The rink of spectral analytic possession has become rapidly developing and completely deprived of another light development. Due to the small amount of rosy light, which is reduced to the allowance and the smallest amount of light, the replacement of the prisms of the steel is made by the diffraction gratings and the subordinate monochromators with automatic scans, which give the corrections of the spectrum, which are exactly the same. Quite a decrease in the amount of light brought up to a thorough detection of the capabilities of spectrophotometers by 4-5 orders of magnitude.

Specialized photometry appeared on the market, for example for radio measurement, colorimetry, or two-handed analysis. Since the end of the 70s, spectrometry has become available on the basis of microcomputers since the end of the 70s. The price didn’t just lull it down, but it made it possible to carry out the analysis in uninterrupted mode.

1.2 Physical bases, on which the Vimiryuvan technique is prompted

1.2.1 Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law

The head of the absorption spectrometry is the meaning of the fact that the world at once passes the light wavelength λ. In a whole context, "light" is associated with the energy of the spectral emission F e (λ) (W nm -1), for example, the density of the emission flow to one surface (E m -2 s -1). To forgive and without storing specific units of light intensity, the intensity of the falling light in points is significant. x= 0 yak I 0 , And the intensity at points x- yak I... Booger in 1729 and Lambert in 1760 was installed, so that the light was weakened, so that it could pass through the hole in the middle, proportionally to the intensity of the light I and the idea of ​​\ u200b \ u200bthinking dx(Bouguer-Lambert law):

Introduced conference call (extinction) α (λ ), otrimaєmo:

(1)

The Bouguer-Lambert law is stagnant only with special minds, as you don’t expect to see it, especially with pre-mature biological education, such as a bottle or a suspension. Mind when you see the Bouguer-Lambert law:

· Falling light is guilty of being monochromatic and collegiate (parallel);

· Dooslіdzhuvanі molecules are guilty but dispersed to a molecular, so homogeneous іvnya, the stench is not guilty of rosіyuvati svіtlo і interchange one by one;

· Rise and visualization from the surface of the surface, so it can also change the intensity of light, and the stench is also due to the change.

At the end of 1852 r Berviyaviv, for a large number of changes in clay molecules, the efficiency of proportions α (λ ) in rivnyanny (1) the proportional concentration itself s This is where molecules start. Having made Bera's clue with the Bouguer-Lambert law, we can recognize the Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law (call the speedy one to the Lambert-Beer law):

Integration of Rivnyannya (2) in all tovschiny x zrazka yes

(3)

de postyna integration I 0 - the intensity of the light falling on the eye, and I- the intensity of light in whatever position x In the middle of the light, in order to increase the light intensity, the light intensity changes exponentially. In the logarithmic form of the ryvnyannya (3) matime viglyad:

For the urahuvannya of the so-called coefficient of molar extinction:

de Μ -1 = l / mol, it is conceivable:

(4)

de, how to start with a cheese, to be called an optical power or an absorbing building Α (λ ).

In such a rank, chase A proportionally to the concentration of pre-sluggish education. Tsei visnovok allows you to vibrate the shvidka more optically vimiruvannya concentration.

1.3 Claying in solids and molecules

The basic theory of solid matter, which can become stagnant when interpreting the optical spectra of the clay:

Zone theory of crystals

The theory of the crystal field

Molecular orbital theory

1.3.1 Zone theory of crystals

The zone of the theory of crystals is a synthesis of the provisions about the physical power of solid solid. The basis of this theory is the statement about the interconnection of energetic equipments of electrons, which is seen in the process of setting up a crystal when atoms are added to a crystal spore.

In the midst of solid til, it is possible to see the singular class of speech, which can easily explain the peculiarities of the zone structure:

recirculating zones, s-, p - і d-Electronic storage of atoms;

the valence zone is not stored by electrons (to take revenge on the undefined energetic equipments);

Optical power of metals:

Opacity for electromagnetics from the lowest frequencies to the middle of the ultraviolet region of the spectrum

Good Imagine Vip

Non-metal speech (electricians and conductors):

The presence in the zone spectrum of the energy fenced in the interval is increased by the reserved valence zone and in the majority of the electrical power zones

Induced by light, electronic transitions between different zones or between different zones, or between one and the same energetic smog.

For the industrial (ionic-covalent) or covalent nature of the chemical link, the width of the fence zone is the most important parameter, which explains the nature of the optical clay in the visible region of the spectrum (which does not need to be translated). zones in the zone of provision, adjusted from the energy of the quanta of the visible light and the infrared visualization.

1.3.2 Theory of the crystal field

The essence of the theory is that the complex can be discerned as a system that can be built up from the central atom (or ion) and the drilled electrostatic field of atoms (ions) calibrated, named by ligands. The details of the electronic structure are provided only for the central ion, and the ligands themselves can only be seen as an unimportant gap between the electrostatic field (charge points).

The head visnovok is a chain splitting of the terms of the central atom in the field of ligands. They have transitional elements, lanthanum and actinids d - і f-Electronic is practically not screened from ligands, since the electric potential of the crystal field can be used to create an energy spectrum d - abo f-orbit: The term is split into a number of discrete energy ratios. Based on the nature of the splitting є to the central principles of the theory of the crystal field.

Weak crystalline field - the spectrum of optical clay is practically not covered (even if the fine details of the spectrum are not covered) because of the crystal chemical parameters.

For the ion group of zaliz (the type of the middle crystal field), the crystal field is weaker than the Coulomb one, a little stronger than the spin-orbital relationship: the magnitude of the splitting of thermals reaches 10,000-20000 cm - 1.

The type of strong crystal field, which can lead to the change of the electronic configuration of the ions, is implemented for the ions of 4 d- i 5 d-Electronic, as well as for the occasion, it is possible to play in the minerals of the low-spirited stations of the ivy group. In the optical spectra of natural minerals, it is practically impossible to see the species.

Appearance between splitted frames, which is denoted by Δ or 10 Dq, Є the main parameter of the crystal field, which characterizes the injection of ligands onto the term of the central atom. The strength of the crystalline field is wrapped in proportion to the appearance (central ion - ligandi) approximately in the fifth step, to change the strength of the crystalline field.

The creation of coordinated rich gems to pull behind them the lowering of the local symmetry of the crystal field, like the inheritance, before the splitting of the energy races of the central ion.

In addition, the position of the energy sources in the crystal field is to be found in the parameters of Cancer Vі С, whale the electrostatic interaction of the electrons and render the standard of a chemical sound.

1.3.3 Theory of molecular orbits

The main idea of ​​the MO method - molecular orbital is set up as a way of folding all-round linear combinations of atomic orbital of the central ion and coordinate of the third ligands. For the theory of MO, it is transferred as a structural unit for writing down the function є the entire complex ion AB n, In yaku 3 d-, 4s- i 4 p orbital of the central atom of metal A in the intermediate step of hybridization R-orbital ligands B.

For a food update about the possibility of an effective combination of the central ion and ligands, it is necessary to see the best minds:

) Orbital A і due to the mother of the same power of symmetry;

) The orbital of the central atom and the ligands of the guilt of the more curving (hybridization);

) Energy of the orbital A and in due time.

A skin pair of atomic orbits establishes two molecular orbits - an energy link and an anti-binding one, - generates two energy levels: the lower one (a ring of an orbital), which increases the number of orbital configurations (an unconnected one) , lot of storage d-Electronic.

Everybody has a lot of couples s-, p - і d-orbital can be produced without up to two types of molecular σ - and π-orbital;

When analyzing the spectroscopic powers of the complexes, the energetic diagrams, which are prompted for additional MO, the nature of the symmetry of molecular σ - and π-orbital (parity - unpaired) is not significant, because of the rules for choosing the optimal choice.

Laporte rule - pass between the camps of the same pairing є fenced off, allow the transition between the camps of the unpaired guys .

Transfer from the transferred charge - the electron before the transition from the orbital, which is more concentrated in one atom, to the orbital, as it will become more closely associated with the atom.

The type of smog in the spectrum is called smog or the spectrum of charge transfer.

Charge transfer tip:

Switch electronics from σ-orbital to undefined t 2 g - і e g - opbіtalі. Transferring the charge from the ligand to metal (fast ligand → metal, or L → M).

Go to the electronics from the stored π-orbital, which is located in the main list, to e * g - , a * 1 g - abo t 1 u orbital. With this, the charge can also be transferred from the ligand to the metal.

A special type of charge transfer is characterized by the half-rings, in which the metal may have different valences.

Type of charge transfer, electronic interaction between different metals. In the spectra of deyakykh z'єdnan smog, the clay is tied with transitions between the electronic lines of the pairs Ni-Mn, Cu-Mn, Fe-Ti and in.

2. Absorption measuring device

The main feature of the current absorptive measures is the value of the concentration of the image from the preliminaries of the speech for the additional adjustment of the values ​​\ u200b \ u200band the transmission of the light energy.

In a given hour, the market of photometric devices and practical laboratories can develop a great deal of versatility in the design and characteristics of colorimeters, photometers and spectrophotometers.

Attach you can see:

· For the form of the presented information (in the units of light transmission, in the units of optical transmission, in units of concentration, for whatever values, for which the calibrations were carried out);

· For the way to induce and save calibrating values ​​(automatically, manually, trivial or short-line);

· For the method of feeding into the attachment of a pre-slidable size (flowing cuvette, switched cuvette, cuvette and special design, for example, 96-hole plate, etc.);

· By design of optical systems (single-channel and multi-channel);

· By the type of dzherel viprominuvannya light energy (versatile lamps firing up tungsten, impulses, gas-firing lamps, svitlodiodi, lasers).

See and know signs, so you can use the parameters and the exploitation characteristics of the attachments.

2.1 Types of absorption spectrometers

When you change your mind, you start a photo of a photo, you can start a photo of a photo of a photo, if you set up a monochromator for a couple of times, you have to use a monochromator for a couple of meanings that you took away in the presence of light.

Similarly, it is possible to view the entire spectral range of Δλ between λ 1 and λ 2, in the presence and visibility of the eye (two-way spectrophotometry, there are two parallel exchanges, one of which pass through the porous cuvette, and the other one - through the cuvette) scoring scoring range (for an additional calculation on a computer in real hour mode) (div. fig. 2, a)

Until recently, the logarithm of the given spectrometers was used for the additional logarithm of the logarithm of the spectrometer, so that it was independent. Now, with a decrease in the ownership variability, the logarithm process follows the help of the software safety of the spectrophotometer, the output signal in which it is taken to linearize the viewer. However, it is difficult to do things.

1) The first logarithm is low, it is necessary for a high accuracy because of the zero line (tobto "reference zero signal"), which is especially important when small values ​​are shown, but not too high in the form of the spectrum.

2) Further, the logarithm is to linearize the data, which is stored in memory, to bring it to a logarithmic photometric version.

) Vimіryuvannya spectra of bistroscanning spectrophotometers with a one-hour logarithm of the linear signal vimagає of the highest liquidities of the transformation, such as those available only from the victories of high-quality microscopes.

Fig. 2. Typical scannable absorption spectrophotometers. (Nice to Naumann and Schroeder, 1987)

From the point of view of the schematic implementation - the stronger the signal of the changeable strum is simpler, less the stronger the signal of the slower strum. To that, the signal of the struma strum, which can be reflected to the photodetector of the spectrometer, is converted into a signal of the changing strum by a mechanical pererivnik before being able to do it (Div. Fig. 2, b).

On the way from the last days of the year, the signal can be taken out of the picture and the signal can be carried out one hour, by splitting the light ahead (with the splitter of the exchange Y) ... This method allows you to wake up the jerks of the light, wick to the fluctuations of the light, but does not compensate for the difference in the sensitivity of the detectors.

The scanning absorption spectrometer, pointed in Fig. 2, d, has only one detector. In order to split the light into two flashes (with the Y exchange splitter), instead of passing the light, change the smell and change the odor by the Y exchange splitter. Such a design of a scannable absorption spectrometer is most common. However, the new one has a shortage. In addition to the intervening frequency of the retreat (60 Hz), and apparently to the selection theorem, the speed of scanning for a period of time cannot be 30 seconds per spectrum in the range from 400 to 800 nm. Іnkshe photometric pardons and pardons viznachennya dozhini hvili reach unacceptably high values. Name the mechanic to be used as a light detector and a photodetector D greater than 20 cm. In such a rank, the allowable light cut of light, visibly prone, is 0.001. Price, however, the possibility of visualizing the presence of the presence in vivo biological and vitrified at low temperatures.

In order to take more light quanta, the design of the spectrometer is responsible for transferring more light from the light (up to 2π). The area of ​​the cathode around the photomultiplier tube, as a rule, is not uniform in terms of efficiency. So, if two exchanges of a two-beam spectrophotometer fall on the Maydan of one and the same photocathode, then, to find the optimal alignment, the correction of the zero line appears to be a shortage due to the fact that Practically all spectrometers of this type have an optical delay, which takes about an hour. According to the Gauss rule, it’s possible to add a broadened change to a broadened exchange, to add a change to a gradual change and additively to a final result. Figure 3 shows the design of a typical double-beam spectrophotometer ("Kontron Instruments GmbH"). I know it's a good idea to introduce another detector Fig. 2, d і compensate for the increase in the capacity of the detectors with another light dzherel of the changing frequency f H, Mi zamemo obmezhennya in shvidkost skanuvannya. The intelligence, adjustment and detection of the detectors are expanded even closer one to one, so that it is possible to carry out the measurement of various signals. As soon as you can reach the optical authorities and the date of the increase in age (close to Δλ = ± 0.5 nm), it is not too high, but you can see it in the chemical and biological molecular spectroscopy, that is the ideal date for the development of the design. ... Available in a quick and easy way, spectral scanning of low and highly developed (in vivo) intelligence, compact design, low level of high light, great dynamic range in terms of, but most importantly, the spectra of computer input, very broadly. Such spectrometers are characterized by small sizes, low rates and high requirements. For dermal dosage, it is not necessary to go further away from the skin. The analytical spectrum, once and for all, is stored in the memory of the computer, and the spectrum of the preliminaries is automatically adjusted in the scanning process without involving people.

Fig. 3. components of a typical double-beam spectrophotometer ("Kontron Instruments GmbH" )

Fig. 4. Scheme of a small, ale taut monochromator Seiy - Namyok on the basis of a holographic curved lattice.

2.2 Types of absorption spectrometers in the visible and near ultraviolet range

2.2.1 Colorimetry and photocolorimetry

Photo colorimetry is an attachment that is used to identify the number of fraudulent speeches by the way of measuring the values ​​of the flow and transmission in the visible part of the electromagnet spectrum.

fig. 5 The photocolorimeter circuit has been simplified: 1 - dzherelo light energy (ignition lamp, impulse lamp); 2 - dark brown light filter, skipping light light into smoothies of wine glass Δλ.; 3 - container for preliminaries (cuvette); 4 - detector (fotopriymach); Ф 0 - falling light energy; F - Potential of light energy, how to break through the gap, which glazed a part of the energy; Δλ. - smuga passing light filter vicoristannya.

Fig 6. The structural diagram of a single-channel colorimeter is used: 1 - dzherelo light energy; 2 - diaphragm; 3 - optical system; 4 - dark brown filter; 5 - optical system; 6 - cuvette; 7 - photo trim; 8 - analog-digital conversion; 9 - micro-EOM; 10 - indicator; 11 - operator panel; 12 - communication interface from call EOM and restructuring attachment.

2.2.2 Spectrophotometry

Basic performance of the spectrophotometer from the photocolorimeter of the polarity in the ability to pass through the illumination of the light at a glance, whether it is necessary to take a photometric measurement, scan (glance over) the entire range of ultraviolet light levels (near-750 nm) ) - from 200 to 380 nm.

The rest of the furnishings do not include the reliability of the release of inexpensive spectrophotometers, as well as the lack of ultraviolet vipromyuvannya and practice only at the visible part of the optical range.

By means of the pre-determined and even more important mode of the robotic spectrophotometer - the scan mode - prompting the spectral crookedness (absorption) and knowledge of the new peaks, as well as the completion of the process of interfering with the results of the spectroscopy

pic 7- monochromator (dzherelo monochromatic production of light energy at the level of λ); 2 - a cuvette with a pre-sludging range; 3 - detector (fotopriymach); Ф 0 - falling light energy; F - Potik of light energy

2.2.3 double-helix spectrophotometry

At the earliest of the 50s of the last century, Brighton Chance proposes a new method of visualizing even the smallest changes in the world. The basic idea is even simpler. At that hour, in a double-beam spectroscopy, in two cuvettes, with a clear and sharp picture, you will be reformed by a light one, ale, , In a two-blade absorption spectrophotometry, only one cuvette is used at a glance, as it is improved by two different types of food, and there is a difference in glazing between 1 і 2 tobto .

A schematic of a standard two-winged spectrophotometer is shown in Fig. 8. I made a call according to the increase in number here, on the view of the light, there is another meaning. In addition, in the capacity of a "monochromator" of a two-winged spectrophotometer, it is completely interfering with filters. The stench may be more luminous, not light monochromators. Two swaps of lights with levels 1 and 2 for an additional rate of 30 to 100 Hz. alarms I ( 1 ) і I ( 2 ) go to the input of a phase-sensitive driver, the output signal of a song is sent to the computer for processing.

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of a typical two-winged spectrophotometer.

Two orthogonal exchanges, which can be changed by a single lamp, can be connected to a single lamp and dispersed by interference filters with additional filters for transmission 1 and 2. Distant light changes focus on a small mirror frequency. The last of the light pulses is generated by the light 1, 2, 1, 2, ... in a larger world, glaze with an optically strong eye, and the low intensity of the last light is detected by a photomultiplier. The output signal of the photomultiplier is converted by a synchronous signal and fed to the computer for processing. Vikorstannya napіvprozorogo mirrors і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і detector, super small light.< 0,0001) при большом оптическом фоне (Е " 4). Кювета с образцом находится в специальном термостатированном держателе, гарантирующем постоянную температуру измерений.

2.2.4 Spectrophotometry with photodiode grates

A special type of spectrophotometer is attached with a photodiode burr or a matrix (PDA). Here the light from the dzherela is directed without a mediocre direction to the eye and even to the diffraction grating, as the project of spreading along the range of light on the photo single grating or the matrix. Remaining the same number of photosensors , converting light energy into electrical impulses. Therefore, be it a range of additional values ​​with a specific design of the spectrophotometer, it is practically mitten, and not last, as it is a simple matter in traditional spectrophotometry. Electric impulses from photodiodes are triggered by a microcomputer with a display of results on the display. Fallow vikoristovuvanogo for robotic range hwil vikoristovuyutsya deuterіvva i / abo tungsten lamp.

The number of photodivisions is based on the distribution of the spectrophotometric attachment. Stagnation of a photodiode lattice is an important element of carrying out kinetic dosages, which allows one hour to carry out the preliminaries of the substrate and to establish itself in the course of the reaction to the product in the case of new dysfunctions. Vikoristannya of the given scheme will provide a high speed of code when the spectrophotometer robot is in scan mode: less than one second per scan range.

3. Attachment and main universities of the spectrophotometer

3.1 Attach the spectrophotometer

Fig. 9: 1 - dzherelo light energy (visible area); 2 - rotary vidbivach; 3 - dzherelo light energy (ultraviolet region); 4 - optical system, which directs the flow of energy to the input field; 5 - input section; 6 - optical system, like a parallel flow of light energy; 7 - dispersing element (prism or diffraction grating); 8 - optical system, which directs the flow of energy to the output field; 9 - wihіdna shіlina; 10 - optical system, like a form of energy, to pass through the cuvette; 11 - cuvette; 12 - photo trim; 13 - analog-digital conversion; 14 - micro-EOM; 15 - indicator; 16 - operator panel; 17 - communication interface from call EOM and restructuring attachment

Swivel drive (2) direct light power from one of the dies (1 or 3), through the optical system (4) to the input slot (5) of the monochromator. When the monochromator goes through the slit (9), there is a monochromatic effect of light energy with a singing wavelength λ. The installation of the necessary additional energy is most often needed to go along the path of the winter kuta fall of the polychromatic flow of light energy over the area of ​​the dispersing element (7). The optical system (10) has the form of a luminous flow in such a rank that, with the minimum allowable proportion of the pre-sorted setting of the cuvette (11) in the cuvette, the geometry of the flow did not change.

The polychromatic light from the dzherela pass through a monochromator, which is placed on the color of the component. Monochromatic viprominuvannya with a discrete interval in a decilka of nanometers to pass through that part of the butt, de-roztasche at once with pre-juvenile breakdown.

3.2 Main universities of the spectrophotometer

3.2.1 Dzherelo light

The UV / VIS spectrophotometer (ultraviolet + visible light) has two lights: for visible spectrum and ultraviolet light - from 200 to 390 nm.

Tungsten light can serve as a visible light, as a rule, halogen lamps, but there is a steady flow of light in the range of 380 - 950 nm, being stable and reliable light energy from an average term of 500 hours of service.

Yak dzherelo UV vikoristovyutsya water or deuterium lamps. Ultraviolet lamps, which are capable of replacing deuterium, have a high intensity of the flow and an uninterrupted spectrum in the range from 200 to 360 nm.

3.2.2 Cuveti

You can see how you can see it in a special attachment. For skin appearance, the stench of the stench. For solid ones - special containers, and with spectral vimіras of rare sparks, special containers are placed from a quartz rock, so called cuvettes.

A large number of spectrophotometers have standard cuvettes, which are intended for such a change, as it transmits a horizontal path of light exchange. The main shortcomings of such cuvettes are those, but only a small part of the eye (about 10%) hangs in the light. At the time of the great value of the education, or the availability of it in a small community, you can choose a micro-cuvette or an ultra-micro cuvette with a volume of 50 or 2.5 µl. Ditches of even small parties evoke capillary powers, and identify problems with the statements of the pukhirts of the fortune, as well as in the process of degassing. Nareshty, from such cuvettes it is foldable to pull back at a time. Standard cuvettes may have new dimensions: 12,512,545 mm, and internal - 1010 mm. Cuvette with a smaller internal volume, which can be released by one vyrobnik may of the same size, standard, ale internal, for example 101.25 mm.

3.2.3 Dispersant

In spectrophotometers, as a dispersing element, it is most often prisms and diffraction gratings.

The diffraction lattice is technologically more folding virib, lower prism. A large number of lattices implanted in Danish hours are made by the method of vialing and holographic copying and are plates with a large number of parallel strokes - up to several hundred per millimeter.

The main test for winning the prizes in the spectrophotometer is є її low partiality.

The overvoltage of diffraction gratings of the polarity is in the fact that the stench will prevent the linear dispersion of light over the entire range of visible and UV spectra. A negative moment is the concentration of diffraction gratings.

One of the most important characteristics of monochromators is the smug transmission, which can be found in units of nanometers.

If the interference filters give a transmission width in the range of 6-20 nm, then the prisms and diffraction gratings give a larger amount of smog - less than 5 nm, and also, more "purity" (monochrome, more light). Smuga transmission is one of the most important characteristics of the spectrophotometer. The change in the smog of the passing of the heavier adjustment of the separate building of the spectrophotometer is a significant characteristic of the quality of the spectrophotometric attachments.

3.2.4 monochromator

The range of spectral attachments - spectrophotometers - is based on the fact that, in some physical systems, the light appears to be different. Such systems are called dispersible. Name it in the quality of a dispersing element, a prism or a diffraction lattice. Attachments, which allow the distribution of polychromatic light into the monochromatic spectrum of viprominuvannya, are called monochromators (Fig. 10).

Small. 10. Functional diagram of a monochromator with a prism.

Enter the size; 2-object, which form is a parallel flow of light energy; 3-prism; 4 - an object that directs the energy supply to the screen; 5 - screen; 6 - wihіdna shіlina

Shchilina (1), a polychromatic streak of light energy is falling, located in the focal area of ​​the linzi (2). Qia chastina will be called a collimator. Enter from the object (2) a parallel flow of light energy falls on the prism (3). As a result of the dispersion (the accumulation of the accumulation of the indicator of the breakage from the age of hvili), the light of the young people, the light of the young children, the light to go with the prisms of the young kutas. If in the focal area of ​​the object (4) put the screen (5), then the lens will focus on the parallel flows of energy for the children of the day in the winter for the screen. By turning the prism (3), it is possible to scan through the slit (6) the monochromatic energy flows in the vyprominuvannya spectrum. Often in the quality of the dispersing element, a diffraction grating appears, which is like a metal plate, on which parallel lines of the same strokes are applied, rostered on strictly the same sides, one in one. Figure 11 shows a diffraction grating, which can be folded into parallel one to one slits of the same width b, Roztashovanyh on the same vіdstanі a one kind of one. soum ( a+ b) Є the period of the central structure і is called the post-lattice d.

Fig. 11. Functional diagram of a monochromator with a diffraction grating.

Enter the size; 2 - an object, a form of parallel flow of light energy; 3 - diffraction grating; 4 - an object that directs the energy supply to the screen; 5 - screen; 6 - wihіdna shіlina

Through the input slot (1), the polychromatic flow of light energy by the lens of the object (2) transforms into a parallel flow, which passes through the slots of the diffraction grating (3). At the skin dots on the screen (5), which is stitched in the focal area of ​​the line of the object (4), take up those exchanges, which, to the line, are parallel to each other and widened by the singing cut Q to the right edge. That is why the illumination at point P on the screen (5) is the result of the interference of secondary schools, as it expands both from the children of the same school, as well as from the old schools. If it’s straight, widening in one direction, the second one will come to point P in one phase and if it’s one phase, and if one doesn’t miss one. In such a rank, on the screen, the cherguvannya of light and dark smogs is promoted. A smart formulation of the maximums of the diffraction grating, so that if you fail one at the time of interference, you should try to do this, if the progress increases to the whole number of needles. The abundance of the shape of the maximums of the youngsters of the hvil from the Q of the diffraction grating rotates by the formula: d * sinQ =k - 1, de k= 0, 1, 2.

As soon as the light of the young children falls on the lattice, then the maxima for the young children grows up from the small kuts Q to the cob directly widened light. To that, the diffraction grating has a polychromatic light in the diffraction spectrum and a dispersive attachment is implanted.

4. Experimental part

They know the spectrum of beryl glasses of Nd 3+ refractory glasses, and all of them may differ in the concentration of Nd 3+ ions. The measurements were carried out on a UV-1700 Shimadzu spectrophotometer. Figure 12. The spectra, depending on the growth of the number, the increase and the intensity of the beeps, the higher the number of the beeps, the higher the concentration of Nd 3+ at the same time.

Fig. 12. Spectrum of beryl glass Nd 3+

The spectral abundance and intensity of the Nd 3+ signal from the concentration in the given samples was carried out. The most common peak (550-600 nm) was measured with two peaks (730-780 nm) and (780-830 nm). Virahuvali was the given value of the intensities of these peaks and for the dermal image, and the graph of fallowness was prompted to take the same value from the concentration of the eye (Fig. 13).

Theoretically, two graphs are guilty but identical, as can be seen in Fig. 13. our practical part of the whole is not supported, so that the graphs may show the deyakі vіdminnostі. The price can be explained to us, that the sight of the victors, slyly, the bullets were polished on the diamond jaws, albeit in the middle the stench, all of them became heterogeneous. For the same reason, the prefix in yak was zrazryvali, there may even be a deyaku mischief.

visnovok

At this point, robots have a physical principle that lies at the heart of the robotic spectrophotometer, its internal devices and the main university. It is important to adhere to the basic principles of the spectrophotometer, around the optical-mechanical circuits, and the blocks of that university to know their storage in new special adaptations and automatic analyzers for young people.

Bula carried out a small experimental robot on a UV-1700 Shimadzu spectrophotometer (Japan). During the course of the boule, the spectra of six samples of beryl glasses with a different concentration of ions Nd 3+ are displayed. The spectral abundance and intensity of the Nd 3+ signal in the given samples was additionally measured. The reasons for the lack of theoretical and practical data have been revealed (heterogeneity of intelligence and prefix).

List of Literature

1. V. Shmidt "Optical spectroscopy for chemists and biologists", Publishing house: Technosphere, M., 2007 ..

Platonov A.N. "The Nature of Mineral Resources", Publishing House: Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 1976.

Vilna Internet encyclopedia "Vikipedia", http://wikipedia.org/