In my case, the abbreviation “Hz” is adopted; for English purposes, the designation Hz is used. In this case, according to the rules of the SI system, if the name of the unit is shortened, it follows s, and if in the text the name of the unit is shortened, then s small.

Definition of the term

The unit of frequency, adopted in the current CI system, lost its name in 1930, when the International Electrotechnical Commission praised the decision. It was connected with the efforts to honor the memory of the famous German scientist Heinrich Hertz, who made a great contribution to the development of this science, in detail, in the field of electrodynamics.

Meaning of the term

Hertz is used to vibrate the frequency of any kind, so the scope of this activity is even wider. So, for example, at a number of hertz it is customary to vibrate sound frequencies, the beat of the human heart, the vibration of the electromagnetic field and other disturbances that are repeated with regular periodicity. So, for example, the frequency of a person’s heart beat in a calm state becomes close to 1 Hz.

Instead, one in this world is interpreted as the number of vibrations that affect the analyzed object over the course of one second. And here the fakers say that the ringing frequency becomes 1 hertz. Apparently, a greater number of pings per second indicates a greater number of units. Thus, from a formal point of view, the quantity that is designated as a hertz is equivalent to a second.

Significant frequency values ​​are usually called high, and insignificant frequencies are called low. The use of high and low frequencies can produce sound sounds of varying intensities. So, for example, frequencies that are in the range from 16 to 70 Hz are called bass sounds, which are very low sounds, and frequencies in the range from 0 to 16 Hz are completely inaudible to the human ear. The most common sounds known to humans lie in the range of 10 to 20 thousand hertz, and sounds with a high frequency fall into the category of ultrasounds, which are quiet, which humans cannot sense.

To assign high frequency values ​​to the “Hertz” mark, special prefixes are added, clicking to create the necessary units manually. In this case, such prefixes are standard for the CI system, so they can be compared with other physical quantities. Thus, a thousand hertz is called “kilohertz”, a million hertz is called “megahertz”, and a milliard hertz is called “gigahertz”.

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1 hertz [Hz] = 1 cycles per second [cycles/s]

Output value

The value has been rearranged

Hertz Excerz Petaerz Tiraguers Gigertz Megaigertz Kilortz Hectogerts decigerz Santigers Milligerz Microgez Picoartz Picoartz Femtogerts Attogerts Cycles per second wavelength in the wavelength in the wavelengths of the wavelength in gigameters in the gigameters of the wavelength in megameters wavelength in hectometers wavelength in dekameters dovzhina hvili in meters dovzhina hvili in decimeters dovzhina hvili in centimeters dovzhina hvili in millimeters dovzhina hvili in micrometers Compton's dove of the electron Compton's dove of the proton

Report on frequency and dovzhinu hvili

Zagalnye Vidomosti

Frequency

Frequency is a quantity that vibrates as another periodic process often repeats itself. In physics, with additional frequency, they describe the power of the philosophical processes. Frequency of drying is the number of additional cycles of the drying process per hour. The frequency unit of the CI system is hertz (Hz). One hertz is equivalent to one beat per second.

Dovzhyna hvyli

It is based on different types of winds in nature, from sea winds caused by wind to electromagnetic winds. The power of electromagnetic coils lies for a long time. These types of plants fall into a number of species:

• Gamma promeni From a long time up to 0.01 nanometers (nm).
• X-ray exchanges with dovzhinyu hvilі – from 0.01 nm to 10 nm.
• Khvili ultraviolet range, which emanate from 10 to 380 nm, the stench is not visible to the human eye.
• Svetlo in visible part of the spectrum From dovzhnoyu hvilі 380–700 nm.
• Invisible to people Infrared viprominuvannya from 700 nm to 1 mm.
• The infrared lines are followed mikrokhvilovy, from a long time from 1 millimeter to 1 meter.
• Found - radiokhvili. This dovzhina begins at 1 meter.

This article is devoted to electromagnetic vibration, and especially light. We will discuss how the frequency of light is reflected in light, including the visible spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared radiation.

Electromagnetic vibration

Electromagnetic vibration is energy, the power of which is immediately similar to the power of needles and particles. This particularity is called corpuscular-xvilian dualism. Electromagnetic coils are formed from a magnetic coil and an electric coil perpendicular to it.

The energy of electromagnetic vibration is the result of the collapse of particles called photons. The higher the frequency of vibration, the more active the smell, and the more harm it can cause to the cells and tissues of living organisms. It turns out that the higher the frequency of vibration, the more powerful the energy is. Great energy allows them to change the molecular structure of the rivers where they go. Moreover, ultraviolet, X-ray and noise pollution is so harmful for creatures and grown-ups. A great part of this development is in space. It is present on the Earth, regardless of the fact that the ozone layer of the atmosphere near the Earth blocks most of it.

Electromagnetic vibration in the atmosphere

The earth's atmosphere allows no electromagnetic interference with the singing frequency. Most gamma radiation, x-rays, ultraviolet light, some infrared radiation, and many radio waves are blocked by the Earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere fades and does not let you go further. Some of the electromagnetic waves, which are visible in the short-wave range, are knocked out of the ionosphere. Reshta viprominyuvanya sinks to the surface of the Earth. The upper atmospheric spheres, far from the surface of the Earth, have more radiation than the lower spheres. Moreover, it is not safe for living organisms to travel there without dry suits.

The atmosphere transmits a small amount of ultraviolet light to the Earth, and it causes damage to the skin. Through ultraviolet exposure, people get sunburned and can develop skin cancer. On the other hand, actions that are passed through by the atmosphere bring bark. For example, infrared waves, which are located on the surface of the Earth, are used in astronomy - infrared telescopes follow infrared telescopes, which produce astronomical objects. The higher the surface of the Earth, the greater the infrared transmission, so telescopes are often installed on the tops of mountains and other heights. Sometimes they should be sent into space to improve the visibility of infrared exchanges.

Interchange between frequency and frequency

Frequency and frequency are proportional to each other. This means that as the frequency increases, the frequency also changes. This is easy to understand: if the frequency of the collision process is high, then the hour between the collisions is very short, and the frequency of the collisions is shorter. If you notice a difference in the chart, then stand between its peaks and be the least, the more the rocking sounds at the right time.

To determine the frequency of the midrange, it is necessary to multiply the frequency of the midrange by its doujin. Electromagnetic coils in a vacuum will always develop with new fluidity. This fluidity is like the fluidity of light. That's up to 299 meters per second.

Svitlo

Visible light-electromagnetic waves with frequency and intensity, which indicate its color.

Dovzhyna hvilі and kolіr

The shortest peak of visible light is 380 nanometers. This is a violet color, followed by blue and black, then green, yellow, orange and, hazel, red. White light is the result of all colors in a row, so that white objects reflect all colors. You can ask for additional help. The light that is lost in it breaks and turns into a mixture of colors in the same sequence as in joy. This sequence is based on the results from the shortest period until the current one. The consistency of the fluid and the increase in lightness at the end of the river is called dispersion.

Veselka works in a similar way. Drops of water, scattering in the atmosphere after reaching the surface, move like a prism and break the skin. The colors of the fun are so important that many people have a mnemonic, so the process of memorizing the colors of the fun is so simple that children can memorize them. Many children, as they say in Russian, know that “Kozhen Myslyvets wants to know where the pheasant sits.” All people figure out their own mnemonics, and this is especially true for children, who have come up with their own powerful method of memorizing the colors of fun, and they will remember for them.

Light, to which the human eye is most sensitive - green, with a long hw of 555 nm in the light middle and 505 nm in the day and darkness. Not all creatures can differentiate colors. Guts, for example, have no excuses for color. On the other hand, creatures have richer colors than people. For example, you can see ultraviolet and infrared light.

Image of light

The color of an object is indicated by the amount of light imprinted on its surface. White objects disturb the visible spectrum, while black objects, for example, fade all the elements and do not disturb anything.

One of the natural materials with a high dispersion coefficient is diamond. Correctly formed diamonds bring out light both from the external and from the internal edges that bend it, like a prism. In this case, it is important that the majority of this light be reflected uphill, at the side of the eye, and not, for example, downward, in the middle of the frame, where it is not visible. Flowers of high dispersion of diamonds shine very beautifully in the sun when lighted individually. It is hard, cut just like a diamond, but not so much. This is due to the fact that in the chemical warehouse, diamonds appear brighter, more beautiful, and lower. The cutters that are cut when cutting diamonds are of great importance, because the cutters are too sharp or too dull and do not allow the light to come out of the inner walls, or to knock the light into the frame, as shown on the illustration.

Spectroscopy

To determine the chemical composition of speech inodes, spectral analysis or spectroscopy is used. This method is especially good, since it is impossible to carry out a chemical analysis of the speech without working with it directly, for example, to avoid the chemical nature of the stars. Knowing how electromagnetic vibration destroys the body, you can figure out what it is made up of. Absorption spectroscopy, which is one of the branches of spectroscopy, means that the body is absorbed by the body. Such an analysis can be carried out in practice, which is often used in astronomy, as well as in work with difficult and unsafe speeches.

Significant evidence of electromagnetic interference

Light, just like all electromagnetic vibrations are energy. The more energy is released, the easier it is to suppress this radiation. The amount of energy released changes with increasing duration. The best thing is that people and creatures recognize this energy and perceive the difference between the different expressions of the world. Electromagnetic vibration of different colors is noticeable by the eye like different colors. This principle is based not only on creatures and people, but also on the technologies created by people to process electromagnetic vibration.

Light light

People and creatures have a great spectrum of electromagnetic vibration. Most people and creatures, for example, react to visible light, and the creatures’ actions are still on ultraviolet and infrared exchanges. It is important to differentiate colors - not all creatures have the same colors, so there is a difference between light and dark surfaces. Our brain shows color as follows: photons of electromagnetic vibration fall on the retina of the eye and, passing through it, awaken the cones, the photoreceptors of the eye. As a result, the nervous system transmits a signal to the brain. Cream flasks, in the eyes there are other photoreceptors, sticks, but they cannot separate colors. Their purpose is to indicate brightness and strength of light.

There are probably a number of types of flasks. People are three types, the skin from which fades photons of light no more than the singing doves of the tree. When they are consumed, a chemical reaction occurs, as a result of which nerve impulses can be received with information about the death of the blood. These signals are generated by the visual zone of the measles. This is a piece of brain tissue that is responsible for the absorption of sound. The skin type of flasks is similar to those of all the flasks, so to get a clear picture of the color, information taken from all the flasks, add them together.

Some creatures have even more types of flasks than people. So, for example, some species of fish and birds have up to five types. It’s interesting that female animals have more types of flasks than males. In some birds, such as seagulls, who catch fish near the water or on its surface, in the middle of the flask there are yellow or red drops of oil that act as a filter. This helps them to have a larger number of colors. The eyes of reptiles are controlled in a similar manner.

Infrared light

Snakes, similar to humans, have not only visual receptors, but also sensitive organs that respond to Infrared viprominuvannya. The stench absorbs the energy of the infrared chamber, so it reacts to heat. Some devices, for example, night tank devices, also react to heat, which appears to be an infrared viper. Such devices will be installed in the military, as well as to ensure the safety and security of the territory. Creatures that see infrared light, and devices that can recognize him, can recognize not only objects that are in their field of vision at the moment, but also traces of objects, creatures, or people who were there before wow, it didn't go away plenty of time. For example, snakes can see that rodents have been digging a hole in the ground, and policemen, who are swilling themselves with the drink of a night bath, can see that evil spirits, for example, pennies, drugs, or something else, have recently been found in the ground. Devices for recording infrared vibration are used in vicoristic telescopes, as well as for checking containers and cameras for leaks. With this help, the flow of warmth is clearly visible. In medicine, infrared light images are used for diagnosis. In the history of mystique - to determine what is depicted under the top ball of the farbi. The night cistern will be built for storage purposes.

Ultraviolet light

Deyaki ribi bachachat ultraviolet light. Their eyes contain a pigment that is sensitive to ultraviolet radiation. The skin of fish contains plots that reflect ultraviolet light, invisible to humans and other creatures - which is often used in the animal world for marking the status of animals, as well as for social purposes. Some birds also receive ultraviolet light. This is especially important during the love period, when the birds are looking for potential partners. The surfaces of thick shoots also reflect ultraviolet light well, and its appearance helps in the search for hedgehogs. The cream of fish and birds, ultraviolet light illuminates the appearance of reptiles, such as turtles, lizards and green iguanas (in the illustration).

The human eye, like the eyes of creatures, is faded by ultraviolet light, but cannot be processed. In humans, the lining of the eye is damaged, especially in the cornea and crystalline. This, in its own way, screams carnage, sickness and blindness. Despite the fact that ultraviolet light damages the eyes, only a small amount is needed for people and animals to produce vitamin D. Ultraviolet radiation, like infrareds, is rich in galuzy, for example, in medicine for disinfection, in astronomy for monitoring the eyes and others objects. and in chemistry to harden rare speeches, as well as for visualization, in order to create diagrams to widen speeches in the singing space. With the help of ultraviolet light, there are fragmented banknotes and passes, because they are marked with signs with a special ink that can be recognized with the help of ultraviolet light. Whenever there are a number of documents, an ultraviolet lamp always causes scraps of evil to be used to destroy the document and replace it with a new photograph or other information, so that marking for ultraviolet lamps is eliminated. There are also a lot of other conditions for ultraviolet treatment.

Color blindness

Due to defects in the eyes of people, it is not possible for them to differentiate colors. This problem is called color blindness or color blindness, according to the people who first described this feature of vision. Sometimes people don’t drink too much color from the song of the night, as long as the stench doesn’t separate the colors from the smell. Often the reason is insufficient damage or damage to the photoreceptors, and in some cases the problem lies in damage to the wiring of the nervous system, for example, in the healthy cerebral cortex, where information about color is generated. In many cases, this situation creates inhumanity and problems for people and creatures, but sometimes it is impossible to separate colors, and, at the same time, to advantage. This is confirmed by the fact that, regardless of the long-term fate of evolution, many creatures of color have no excuses. People are creatures that do not differentiate colors, but can, for example, be good at camouflaging other creatures.

Regardless of the problems of color blindness, they are considered to be a problem, and for people with color blindness the way to enter the profession is closed. If so, they can revoke their rights to control the aircraft without limitation. In many countries, the rights of water for these people are also looming, and in some cases the stench cannot be taken away from the rights of the dead. Therefore, they may never know how to handle the need for a car or other means of transport. It’s also difficult to know how important it is to change colors. For example, it is important for them to become designers, or to work in the middle, where colors are used as a signal (for example, about concern).

Work is being carried out to create more sympathetic minds of people with color blindness. For example, there are tables in which colors correspond to the signs, and in some countries the signs are used in settings and large places in order of the colors. Some designers do not rely on violence, but rather use the same color scheme to convey important information to their robots. Instead of color, and next to it, they vikorist brightness, text and other ways of seeing information, so that people who do not discriminate between colors could completely reject the information that is transmitted by the designer. In most cases, people with color blindness do not distinguish red and green colors, so designers sometimes replace the combination “red = unsafe, green = everything is fine” with red and blue colors. Most operating systems also allow you to adjust colors so that people with color blindness can see everything.

Color at the machine's dawn

The machine's star in color is the basis of a piece of intelligence that is rapidly developing. Until recently, most of the work in this industry took place with monochrome images, but now more scientific laboratories are working with color. The same algorithms for working with monochrome images also include processing of color images.

Zastosuvannya

Machine control is used in a number of applications, for example for controlling robots, self-propelled cars, and unmanned aerial vehicles. This is especially true in the field of security, for example, for identifying people and objects from photographs, for searching databases, for updating the flow of objects, depending on their color, etc. Significant rearrangement of objects that collapse allows the computer to directly observe people's eyes or follow the collapse of cars, people, hands, and other objects.

In order to correctly recognize unknown objects, it is important to know about their shape and other powers, but information about color is not so important. When working with familiar objects, color, however, helps to better recognize them. Working with color is also difficult because information about color can be omitted from the image with low visibility. To recognize the shape of an object, in addition to color, a high degree of separation is required. Working with color instead of the shape of an object allows you to change the hour of image processing and use fewer computer resources. The color helps to recognize objects of different shapes, and can be used as a signal (for example, a red color is a signal of unsafety). In this case, it is not necessary to recognize the shape of the sign or the text written on it. On the YouTube website you can find a lot of useful applications of color machine video.

Obtaining information about color

Photos that are collected by the computer, either captured by money-makers, or taken with a used camera. The process of digital photography and video recording is well mastered, but the processing of these images, especially in color, is associated with a number of difficulties, many of which have not yet been resolved. This is due to the fact that the color vision of people and creatures of control is very complex, and creating a computer vision of the human image is not easy. Sound, like hearing, relies on adaptation to the extreme. The significance of sound lies in the frequency, sound pressure and severity of sound, and in the visibility and presence of other sounds in the middle. So, as a matter of fact, the importance of color lies not only in the frequency and depth of life, but also in the particularities of the extreme middle ground. So, for example, the colors of unnecessary objects blend into the colors.

From the point of view of evolution, such an adaptation is necessary to help us come to a more common sense and to gain respect for insignificant elements, and to turn our respect to those that change in the most important situation. This is necessary to make it easier to mark huts and find hedgehogs. Sometimes, through this adaptation, optical illusions are created. For example, depending on the color of too many objects, we perceive the color of two bodies in different ways, as long as they mix light with the same amount of light. The illustration shows an example of such an optical illusion. The brown square at the top of the image (another row, another column) looks lighter, the lower brown square at the bottom of the baby (fifth row, another column). In fact, the colors are the same. We know about this, but we still perceive them as different colors. Since our understanding of color is so difficult, it is important for programmers to describe all the nuances in algorithms for machine vision. Regardless of this difficulty, we have already achieved a lot in this hole.

Unit Converter articles boules edited and illustrated by Anatoly Zolotkov

Are you interested in transferring one word from one language to another? Colleagues are ready to help you. Publish food with TCTerms And by stretching a few strands you get the answer.

Gigahertz of sons, prosuvannya triva

And yet, life on the processor used to be more fun. About a quarter of a century ago, humanity crossed the 1 kHz barrier, and this dimension was introduced into the processor vocabulary. The “hardness” of the processor began to be calculated in megahertz clock frequency (which, strictly speaking, is incorrect). Yet again, the 100-megahertz cycle for increasing the clock frequency is considered as a useful concept: from the most important marketing art preparation, technological presentations, and at the end – the holy life. This was the case until approximately the same time, until the frequency of “desktop” processors reached 600 MHz (if the namesake of Mercedes was mentioned in every publication), and the main technology for chip generation became 0.18 microns. Then it became “unfortunate”: clock frequency increases were sought for several months, and finally, Intel began to “disrupt” the information market, announcing 15 new processors at the same time. Fifteen silicon microsensations fell like breasts onto our heads, and while looking at the peculiarities of the skin presented, the celestial Christmas spirit of the day was spent. It’s no wonder that two wired processor processors for PCs (Intel and AMD) inevitably raised the 1 GHz bar, leaving nothing special. A lot of Internet comments came across only one chimera: the sound bar, and so - no fireworks and champagne. It has become clear: the plans of the robbers have long been straightened into the zigahertz space. The Intel Willamette crystal with a clock frequency of 1.3-1.5 GHz is still in the other half of this world, and we are talking about the features of the architecture, and not about cycles per second.

In my memory, they started talking about the treasured gigahertz even more so when, in a special Californian market, in the winter of 1999, Albert Yu demonstrated a Pentium III 0.25 micron, which operates at a frequency of 1002 MHz. Under the dark splashes of the hall, it seemed that the demonstration was guessing a trick. It became clear later that the processor “went wild” at the cryogenic installation. There is indirect evidence that the refrigerator was a serial installation from KryoTech. So anyway, they forgot about the gigahertz in the river, although processors have reached this frequency to reach close. Tsikavo, who paid 2000 rubles for the sake of Intel directors, the legendary Andy Grove for marrying Albert Yu, again repeating the Intel trick. At the IDF Spring'2000 forum, he demonstrated a test sample of the Intel Willamette processor, which operates at a clock frequency of 1.5 GHz. Repeat billions of cycles per second - and all at room temperature! It's a shame that Willamette is another microprocessor with a new architecture, and not just a few smaller versions of the Pentium III. Ale about tse trokhi lower.

Its advertising gigahertz has long been in AMD’s reserves. The company is officially working with the “cold warriors” from KryoTech, and Athlon has emerged as a very promising processor for overclocking extreme cooling. Gigahertz solutions based on the cooled Athlon 850 MHz were already available for sale in Russia.

The marketing situation has heated up considerably since AMD began to expand in a number of room-temperature Athlon processors with a frequency of 1 GHz. There is nothing to be gained, and Intel managed to pull out an ace from its sleeves - Pentium III (Coppermine) 1 GHz. Wanting to leave the rest, I planned on a friend for half the fate. It's no secret that taking the gigahertz bar is a priority for both AMD and Intel. But they really wanted to be first. It is hardly possible to greet two respectable companies who are running around the same square with the number 1 and waiting in anticipation for the music to stop. AMD simply gave in first - and that doesn’t mean anything at all. Like the cosmonaut: people were the first to be launched into the USSR, and flights became more frequent (and cheaper) by “other” Americans. Well, just like that: the stink is for the Month, and we said “fi,” and the whole fuse disappeared. However, the race for clock frequencies has long been a marketing issue: people, apparently, are keen on buying megahertz rather than productivity indices. The clock frequency of the processor, as before, is a source of prestige and a local display of the “sophistication” of a computer.

Another growing leader of the microprocessor market – the Taiwanese company VIA officially presented its flagship product just last month. The microprocessor, previously known under the Joshua code name, abandoned the original name Cyrix III and began to compete with Celeron from below in the market of cheapest computers. Of course, the closest rivers do not have frequencies in gigahertz like their own ears, but this “desktop” chip is distinguished by the very fact of its existence with the enemy.

In this review, we will always talk about new products and plans from leading manufacturers of microprocessors for PCs, regardless of those who have stinked up the gigahertz selection barrier.

Intel Willamette - new 32-bit chip architecture

A 32-bit Intel processor with code names Willamette (a river in Oregon, 306 km away) will hit the market in the other half of this world. Based on the new architecture, it will become Intel's strongest processor for desktop systems, and its starting frequency will be above 1 GHz (estimated at 1.3-1.5 GHz). The supply of test samples of the processor to OEM manufacturers has been ongoing for at least two months. The chipset for Willamette is codenamed Tehama.

What is meant by the mysterious term “new architecture”? For starters - support for the external clock frequency of 400 MHz (the same as the system bus frequency). This is secondarily lower, lower than 133 MHz, which supports current processors of the Pentium III class. In fact, 400 MHz is the resulting frequency: then the bus operates at a frequency of 100 MHz, but it can transmit several portions of data per cycle, which gives the equivalent of 400 MHz. The bus will use a data exchange protocol similar to that previously implemented by the P6 bus. The data transfer speed of the 64-bit synchronous bus becomes 3.2 GB/s. To put it into perspective: the GTL+ 133 MHz bus (the one used today by the Pentium III) has a throughput capacity of a little more than 1 GB/s.

A friend of Willamette rice is SSE-2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) support. This set contains 144 new instructions for optimizing video processing, encryption and Internet add-ons. SSE-2, of course, is related to SSE, first implemented in Pentium III processors. Therefore, Willamette can successfully host hundreds of programs that are part of the SSE framework. Willamette itself is used to support both calculations and float operations on 128-bit XMM registries. Without going into detail, the task of SSE2 is to compensate for the not strongest unit on the market with floating coma operations. With support for SSE2 on the side of third-party software developers (Microsoft is both in favor), there is no mention of replacement for increased productivity.

And, you will find, the third key feature of Willamette is deep conveyorization. Instead of 10 stages, there are now 20 stages, which allows for a significant increase in productivity when processing large numbers of mathematical additions and increasing the clock frequency. True, a “deep” conveyor comes with two ends: the hour of completing an operation quickly shortens, but the hour of delay when performing mutually related operations, which increases, can “compensate” for the increase in productivity conveyor. In order to avoid this, the developers managed to increase the intelligence of the conveyor - increase the accuracy of transferring transitions, which exceeded an average of 90%. Another way to improve the efficiency of a long-term conveyor is to prioritize (order) instructions in the cache. The function of the cache is to expand instructions in the order in which they are about to be deleted. The best thing to do is to defragment the hard drive (only the cache in the middle).

Cash cache, but the biggest complaint for the past three hours has been the productivity of a block of entire units of current processors. The integer capabilities of processors are especially critical when installing office applications (whether Word or Excel). It was then that the Pentium III and Athlon showed just a modest increase in productivity on all calculations at an increased clock frequency (cases per unit of hundreds). Willamett has implemented two modules of integral operations. What is known about them so far is that they can output two instructions per clock cycle. This means that with a core frequency of 1.3 GHz, the resulting frequency of the entire module is equivalent to 2.6 GHz. And there are literally two such modules. This allows you to convert essentially many operations with integer numbers per clock cycle.

There is no guessing about the cache size in the latest Willamette specification published by Intel. Also, note that the L1 cache is 256 KB in size (for Pentium II/III, the L1 cache is 32 KB - 16 KB for data and 16 KB for instructions). That same halo of secrecy emanates from the L2 cache. The most popular option is 512 KB.

The Willamette processor, according to these data, is supplied in cases with a matrix-type pin layout for a Socket-462 socket.

AMD Athlon: 1.1 GHz – demo, 1 GHz – shipping

Starting to follow the leading strategy of following the leader, AMD quickly hit the nose of the entire computer industry by demonstrating an Athlon processor with a clock frequency of 1.1 GHz (more precisely - 1116) at the beginning of winter. MHz). Everyone thought it was hot. Having said that, well, there are processors in it, but everyone knows how long the hour-long lag is between demonstration and mass production. But that was not the case: a month later, Advanced Micro Devices began serial production of Athlon processors with a clock frequency of 1 GHz. And all the doubts about its real availability were raised by the companies Compaq and Gateway, which developed airborne systems based on these chips. The price, of course, did not deprive us of much attention. A gigahertz Athlon costs around $1,300. Lots of thousands of pieces. But it has very popular younger brothers: Athlon 950 MHz (1000 dollars) and Athlon 900 MHz (900 dollars). There are few such processors, so the prices are dismal.

Demonstrations before Athlon 1116 MHz will be noted. Design standards - 0.18 microns, vicoristics, copper connection, thermal imaging - normal: operates at room temperature with a medium active radiator. Well, as it turned out, it was not just Athlon ("just" aluminum has an interconnection), but Athlon Professional (code name - Thunderbird). The real appearance of such a processor on the market will only be in the middle of the market (most likely, in the market). Only the frequency will be lower, and the cost will not be “gigahertz dollars”, but significantly cheaper.

There is not much information about the Athlon processor on the Thunderbird core yet. It will not be Slot A (like current versions of Athlon at 500 MHz), but the matrix connector Socket A. Apparently, the case of the processor will be “flat”, and not a massive “vertical” cartridge. It turns out that before the summer, processors based on the Thunderbird core will be released with clock frequencies ranging from 700 to 900 MHz, and gigahertz will appear later. With the rapid pace of price reductions for new processors, it is becoming increasingly realistic to bring such a computer into the mainstream price range based on the Athlon 750 MHz or something close to the New Rock.

On the other hand, the main contender for low-end computers from the AMD line is losing the undisputed processor based on the Spitfire core. You play the role of a young competitor to Intel Celeron. The Spitfire case is designed for installation in a Socket A processor socket (1.5 V), and its clock frequency can reach 750 MHz until early autumn.

Briefly about IBM's megahertz ambitions

While the whole world is still excited about the acquisition of gigahertz, IBM is talking about technology that allows you to add gigahertz chips per river. The use of 4.5 GHz for the main technologies of the generation of superchargers can be fully covered. Also, according to IBM, it developed IPCMOS (Interlocked Pipelined CMOS) technology to ensure mass production of chips with a clock frequency of 3.3-4.5 GHz in three days. At this rate, energy consumption will be reduced by half according to the parameters of current processors. The essence of the new processor architecture lies in the vicoristan distribution of clock pulses. It is important to determine which processor unit operates at a higher or lower clock frequency. The idea lay on the surface: all daily processors use a centralized clock frequency - all kernel elements, all computing units are synchronized with it. Roughly speaking, until all operations on one “turn” are completed, the processor will not begin. As a result of the “full” operation, Swedish streams are streamed. In addition, it turns out that if you need to beat the chicken kilim, then you have to shake the entire booth. The decentralization mechanism for supplying the clock frequency, depending on the needs of each block, allows the flexible blocks of microcircuits not to carry out extensive operations on other blocks, but to do their own thing, seemingly mentally. As a result, energy consumption decreases (cowardice requires only a few people, not the whole room). IBM engineers are working hard when it comes to those who are making synchronous clock speeds more and more important in the future. In this case, the only way is the stagnation of decentralized clock frequency supply and the immediate transition to fundamentally new (quantum, literally) technologies of microcircuits. class, what i Pentium III. Ale tse pardon. VIA itself positions itself as a competitor to Intel Celeron - a processor for cob systems. Ale tse appeared in a very self-satisfying way.

Let's take a look at the advantage of the new processor. There is no insurance for installation in a Socket 370 processor socket (like Celeron). However, compared to Celeron, Cyrix III supports the external clock frequency (system bus frequency) not 66 MHz, but 133 MHz – like the current Pentium III of the Coppermine family. Another key advantage of Cyrix III is the integration of an on-chip cache of another level (L2) with a capacity of 256 KB - like the new Pentium III. The cache of the first level is still great (64 KB).

And finally, the third achievement is support for the AMD Enhanced 3DNow SIMD command set! This is truly the first example of 3Dnow integration! for Socket 370 processors. AMD's multimedia instructions are already widely supported by software vendors, which in part help to compensate for the increased availability of processors for graphics and gaming applications.

This is where everything will end well. The processor is produced using 0.18-micron technology with six metallization balls. At the time of release, the “swedish” Cyrix III Mav Pentium-rating was 533. The actual core clock speed was noticeably lower, since since the independent Cyrix its processors have been marked with “ratings” in relation to the clock frequencies of Pentium, Pentium II processors, and later - Pentium III . It would be better to look at the Pentium: the number would be larger.

Kerivnik VIA Wuen Chi Chen (formerly an Intel processor engineer) is now planning to offer Celeron the low price of Cyrix III. How far this has gone is up to you to judge for yourself. Cyrix III PR 500 costs $84, and Cyrix III PR533 costs $99. In short, Celeron costs an hour and is cheaper. The first testing of the processor (carried out, initially, not in Russia) showed that its productivity in office applications (where the emphasis is on numbers) is little compromised by Celeron, and the axis for multimedia growth is obvious. Of course, don't ruin Cyrix III. Well then, the first baby with his breast. However, the VIA reserve has an integrated Samuel processor based on the IDT WinChip4 core. There the result can be improved.

Alpha also takes away gigahertz merits

Compaq (the owner of part of the DEC slump, including the Alpha processor) intends to release a version of the Alpha 21264 server RISC processor with a clock frequency of 1 GHz. And the next chip - Alpha 21364 - starts immediately at this threshold frequency. In addition, the updated version of Alfi will have a 1.5 MB L2 cache and a Rambus memory controller.

ComputerPress 4"2000

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1 megahertz [MHz] = 0.001 gigahertz [GHz]

Output value

The value has been rearranged

Hertz Excerz Petaerz Tiraguers Gigertz Megaigertz Kilortz Hectogerts decigerz Santigers Milligerz Microgez Picoartz Picoartz Femtogerts Attogerts Cycles per second wavelength in the wavelength in the wavelengths of the wavelength in gigameters in the gigameters of the wavelength in megameters wavelength in hectometers wavelength in dekameters dovzhina hvili in meters dovzhina hvili in decimeters dovzhina hvili in centimeters dovzhina hvili in millimeters dovzhina hvili in micrometers Compton's dove of the electron Compton's dove of the proton

Thermal efficiency and heating economy

Report on frequency and dovzhinu hvili

Zagalnye Vidomosti

Frequency

Frequency is a quantity that vibrates as another periodic process often repeats itself. In physics, with additional frequency, they describe the power of the philosophical processes. Frequency of drying is the number of additional cycles of the drying process per hour. The frequency unit of the CI system is hertz (Hz). One hertz is equivalent to one beat per second.

Dovzhyna hvyli

It is based on different types of winds in nature, from sea winds caused by wind to electromagnetic winds. The power of electromagnetic coils lies for a long time. These types of plants fall into a number of species:

• Gamma promeni From a long time up to 0.01 nanometers (nm).
• X-ray exchanges with dovzhinyu hvilі – from 0.01 nm to 10 nm.
• Khvili ultraviolet range, which emanate from 10 to 380 nm, the stench is not visible to the human eye.
• Svetlo in visible part of the spectrum From dovzhnoyu hvilі 380–700 nm.
• Invisible to people Infrared viprominuvannya from 700 nm to 1 mm.
• The infrared lines are followed mikrokhvilovy, from a long time from 1 millimeter to 1 meter.
• Found - radiokhvili. This dovzhina begins at 1 meter.

This article is devoted to electromagnetic vibration, and especially light. We will discuss how the frequency of light is reflected in light, including the visible spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared radiation.

Electromagnetic vibration

Electromagnetic vibration is energy, the power of which is immediately similar to the power of needles and particles. This particularity is called corpuscular-xvilian dualism. Electromagnetic coils are formed from a magnetic coil and an electric coil perpendicular to it.

The energy of electromagnetic vibration is the result of the collapse of particles called photons. The higher the frequency of vibration, the more active the smell, and the more harm it can cause to the cells and tissues of living organisms. It turns out that the higher the frequency of vibration, the more powerful the energy is. Great energy allows them to change the molecular structure of the rivers where they go. Moreover, ultraviolet, X-ray and noise pollution is so harmful for creatures and grown-ups. A great part of this development is in space. It is present on the Earth, regardless of the fact that the ozone layer of the atmosphere near the Earth blocks most of it.

Electromagnetic vibration in the atmosphere

The earth's atmosphere allows no electromagnetic interference with the singing frequency. Most gamma radiation, x-rays, ultraviolet light, some infrared radiation, and many radio waves are blocked by the Earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere fades and does not let you go further. Some of the electromagnetic waves, which are visible in the short-wave range, are knocked out of the ionosphere. Reshta viprominyuvanya sinks to the surface of the Earth. The upper atmospheric spheres, far from the surface of the Earth, have more radiation than the lower spheres. Moreover, it is not safe for living organisms to travel there without dry suits.

The atmosphere transmits a small amount of ultraviolet light to the Earth, and it causes damage to the skin. Through ultraviolet exposure, people get sunburned and can develop skin cancer. On the other hand, actions that are passed through by the atmosphere bring bark. For example, infrared waves, which are located on the surface of the Earth, are used in astronomy - infrared telescopes follow infrared telescopes, which produce astronomical objects. The higher the surface of the Earth, the greater the infrared transmission, so telescopes are often installed on the tops of mountains and other heights. Sometimes they should be sent into space to improve the visibility of infrared exchanges.

Interchange between frequency and frequency

Frequency and frequency are proportional to each other. This means that as the frequency increases, the frequency also changes. This is easy to understand: if the frequency of the collision process is high, then the hour between the collisions is very short, and the frequency of the collisions is shorter. If you notice a difference in the chart, then stand between its peaks and be the least, the more the rocking sounds at the right time.

To determine the frequency of the midrange, it is necessary to multiply the frequency of the midrange by its doujin. Electromagnetic coils in a vacuum will always develop with new fluidity. This fluidity is like the fluidity of light. That's up to 299 meters per second.

Svitlo

Visible light-electromagnetic waves with frequency and intensity, which indicate its color.

Dovzhyna hvilі and kolіr

The shortest peak of visible light is 380 nanometers. This is a violet color, followed by blue and black, then green, yellow, orange and, hazel, red. White light is the result of all colors in a row, so that white objects reflect all colors. You can ask for additional help. The light that is lost in it breaks and turns into a mixture of colors in the same sequence as in joy. This sequence is based on the results from the shortest period until the current one. The consistency of the fluid and the increase in lightness at the end of the river is called dispersion.

Veselka works in a similar way. Drops of water, scattering in the atmosphere after reaching the surface, move like a prism and break the skin. The colors of the fun are so important that many people have a mnemonic, so the process of memorizing the colors of the fun is so simple that children can memorize them. Many children, as they say in Russian, know that “Kozhen Myslyvets wants to know where the pheasant sits.” All people figure out their own mnemonics, and this is especially true for children, who have come up with their own powerful method of memorizing the colors of fun, and they will remember for them.

Light, to which the human eye is most sensitive - green, with a long hw of 555 nm in the light middle and 505 nm in the day and darkness. Not all creatures can differentiate colors. Guts, for example, have no excuses for color. On the other hand, creatures have richer colors than people. For example, you can see ultraviolet and infrared light.

Image of light

The color of an object is indicated by the amount of light imprinted on its surface. White objects disturb the visible spectrum, while black objects, for example, fade all the elements and do not disturb anything.

One of the natural materials with a high dispersion coefficient is diamond. Correctly formed diamonds bring out light both from the external and from the internal edges that bend it, like a prism. In this case, it is important that the majority of this light be reflected uphill, at the side of the eye, and not, for example, downward, in the middle of the frame, where it is not visible. Flowers of high dispersion of diamonds shine very beautifully in the sun when lighted individually. It is hard, cut just like a diamond, but not so much. This is due to the fact that in the chemical warehouse, diamonds appear brighter, more beautiful, and lower. The cutters that are cut when cutting diamonds are of great importance, because the cutters are too sharp or too dull and do not allow the light to come out of the inner walls, or to knock the light into the frame, as shown on the illustration.

Spectroscopy

To determine the chemical composition of speech inodes, spectral analysis or spectroscopy is used. This method is especially good, since it is impossible to carry out a chemical analysis of the speech without working with it directly, for example, to avoid the chemical nature of the stars. Knowing how electromagnetic vibration destroys the body, you can figure out what it is made up of. Absorption spectroscopy, which is one of the branches of spectroscopy, means that the body is absorbed by the body. Such an analysis can be carried out in practice, which is often used in astronomy, as well as in work with difficult and unsafe speeches.

Significant evidence of electromagnetic interference

Light, just like all electromagnetic vibrations are energy. The more energy is released, the easier it is to suppress this radiation. The amount of energy released changes with increasing duration. The best thing is that people and creatures recognize this energy and perceive the difference between the different expressions of the world. Electromagnetic vibration of different colors is noticeable by the eye like different colors. This principle is based not only on creatures and people, but also on the technologies created by people to process electromagnetic vibration.

Light light

People and creatures have a great spectrum of electromagnetic vibration. Most people and creatures, for example, react to visible light, and the creatures’ actions are still on ultraviolet and infrared exchanges. It is important to differentiate colors - not all creatures have the same colors, so there is a difference between light and dark surfaces. Our brain shows color as follows: photons of electromagnetic vibration fall on the retina of the eye and, passing through it, awaken the cones, the photoreceptors of the eye. As a result, the nervous system transmits a signal to the brain. Cream flasks, in the eyes there are other photoreceptors, sticks, but they cannot separate colors. Their purpose is to indicate brightness and strength of light.

There are probably a number of types of flasks. People are three types, the skin from which fades photons of light no more than the singing doves of the tree. When they are consumed, a chemical reaction occurs, as a result of which nerve impulses can be received with information about the death of the blood. These signals are generated by the visual zone of the measles. This is a piece of brain tissue that is responsible for the absorption of sound. The skin type of flasks is similar to those of all the flasks, so to get a clear picture of the color, information taken from all the flasks, add them together.

Some creatures have even more types of flasks than people. So, for example, some species of fish and birds have up to five types. It’s interesting that female animals have more types of flasks than males. In some birds, such as seagulls, who catch fish near the water or on its surface, in the middle of the flask there are yellow or red drops of oil that act as a filter. This helps them to have a larger number of colors. The eyes of reptiles are controlled in a similar manner.

Infrared light

Snakes, similar to humans, have not only visual receptors, but also sensitive organs that respond to Infrared viprominuvannya. The stench absorbs the energy of the infrared chamber, so it reacts to heat. Some devices, for example, night tank devices, also react to heat, which appears to be an infrared viper. Such devices will be installed in the military, as well as to ensure the safety and security of the territory. Creatures that see infrared light, and devices that can recognize him, can recognize not only objects that are in their field of vision at the moment, but also traces of objects, creatures, or people who were there before wow, it didn't go away plenty of time. For example, snakes can see that rodents have been digging a hole in the ground, and policemen, who are swilling themselves with the drink of a night bath, can see that evil spirits, for example, pennies, drugs, or something else, have recently been found in the ground. Devices for recording infrared vibration are used in vicoristic telescopes, as well as for checking containers and cameras for leaks. With this help, the flow of warmth is clearly visible. In medicine, infrared light images are used for diagnosis. In the history of mystique - to determine what is depicted under the top ball of the farbi. The night cistern will be built for storage purposes.

Ultraviolet light

Deyaki ribi bachachat ultraviolet light. Their eyes contain a pigment that is sensitive to ultraviolet radiation. The skin of fish contains plots that reflect ultraviolet light, invisible to humans and other creatures - which is often used in the animal world for marking the status of animals, as well as for social purposes. Some birds also receive ultraviolet light. This is especially important during the love period, when the birds are looking for potential partners. The surfaces of thick shoots also reflect ultraviolet light well, and its appearance helps in the search for hedgehogs. The cream of fish and birds, ultraviolet light illuminates the appearance of reptiles, such as turtles, lizards and green iguanas (in the illustration).

The human eye, like the eyes of creatures, is faded by ultraviolet light, but cannot be processed. In humans, the lining of the eye is damaged, especially in the cornea and crystalline. This, in its own way, screams carnage, sickness and blindness. Despite the fact that ultraviolet light damages the eyes, only a small amount is needed for people and animals to produce vitamin D. Ultraviolet radiation, like infrareds, is rich in galuzy, for example, in medicine for disinfection, in astronomy for monitoring the eyes and others objects. and in chemistry to harden rare speeches, as well as for visualization, in order to create diagrams to widen speeches in the singing space. With the help of ultraviolet light, there are fragmented banknotes and passes, because they are marked with signs with a special ink that can be recognized with the help of ultraviolet light. Whenever there are a number of documents, an ultraviolet lamp always causes scraps of evil to be used to destroy the document and replace it with a new photograph or other information, so that marking for ultraviolet lamps is eliminated. There are also a lot of other conditions for ultraviolet treatment.

Color blindness

Due to defects in the eyes of people, it is not possible for them to differentiate colors. This problem is called color blindness or color blindness, according to the people who first described this feature of vision. Sometimes people don’t drink too much color from the song of the night, as long as the stench doesn’t separate the colors from the smell. Often the reason is insufficient damage or damage to the photoreceptors, and in some cases the problem lies in damage to the wiring of the nervous system, for example, in the healthy cerebral cortex, where information about color is generated. In many cases, this situation creates inhumanity and problems for people and creatures, but sometimes it is impossible to separate colors, and, at the same time, to advantage. This is confirmed by the fact that, regardless of the long-term fate of evolution, many creatures of color have no excuses. People are creatures that do not differentiate colors, but can, for example, be good at camouflaging other creatures.

Regardless of the problems of color blindness, they are considered to be a problem, and for people with color blindness the way to enter the profession is closed. If so, they can revoke their rights to control the aircraft without limitation. In many countries, the rights of water for these people are also looming, and in some cases the stench cannot be taken away from the rights of the dead. Therefore, they may never know how to handle the need for a car or other means of transport. It’s also difficult to know how important it is to change colors. For example, it is important for them to become designers, or to work in the middle, where colors are used as a signal (for example, about concern).

Work is being carried out to create more sympathetic minds of people with color blindness. For example, there are tables in which colors correspond to the signs, and in some countries the signs are used in settings and large places in order of the colors. Some designers do not rely on violence, but rather use the same color scheme to convey important information to their robots. Instead of color, and next to it, they vikorist brightness, text and other ways of seeing information, so that people who do not discriminate between colors could completely reject the information that is transmitted by the designer. In most cases, people with color blindness do not distinguish red and green colors, so designers sometimes replace the combination “red = unsafe, green = everything is fine” with red and blue colors. Most operating systems also allow you to adjust colors so that people with color blindness can see everything.

Color at the machine's dawn

The machine's star in color is the basis of a piece of intelligence that is rapidly developing. Until recently, most of the work in this industry took place with monochrome images, but now more scientific laboratories are working with color. The same algorithms for working with monochrome images also include processing of color images.

Zastosuvannya

Machine control is used in a number of applications, for example for controlling robots, self-propelled cars, and unmanned aerial vehicles. This is especially true in the field of security, for example, for identifying people and objects from photographs, for searching databases, for updating the flow of objects, depending on their color, etc. Significant rearrangement of objects that collapse allows the computer to directly observe people's eyes or follow the collapse of cars, people, hands, and other objects.

In order to correctly recognize unknown objects, it is important to know about their shape and other powers, but information about color is not so important. When working with familiar objects, color, however, helps to better recognize them. Working with color is also difficult because information about color can be omitted from the image with low visibility. To recognize the shape of an object, in addition to color, a high degree of separation is required. Working with color instead of the shape of an object allows you to change the hour of image processing and use fewer computer resources. The color helps to recognize objects of different shapes, and can be used as a signal (for example, a red color is a signal of unsafety). In this case, it is not necessary to recognize the shape of the sign or the text written on it. On the YouTube website you can find a lot of useful applications of color machine video.

Obtaining information about color

Photos that are collected by the computer, either captured by money-makers, or taken with a used camera. The process of digital photography and video recording is well mastered, but the processing of these images, especially in color, is associated with a number of difficulties, many of which have not yet been resolved. This is due to the fact that the color vision of people and creatures of control is very complex, and creating a computer vision of the human image is not easy. Sound, like hearing, relies on adaptation to the extreme. The significance of sound lies in the frequency, sound pressure and severity of sound, and in the visibility and presence of other sounds in the middle. So, as a matter of fact, the importance of color lies not only in the frequency and depth of life, but also in the particularities of the extreme middle ground. So, for example, the colors of unnecessary objects blend into the colors.

From the point of view of evolution, such an adaptation is necessary to help us come to a more common sense and to gain respect for insignificant elements, and to turn our respect to those that change in the most important situation. This is necessary to make it easier to mark huts and find hedgehogs. Sometimes, through this adaptation, optical illusions are created. For example, depending on the color of too many objects, we perceive the color of two bodies in different ways, as long as they mix light with the same amount of light. The illustration shows an example of such an optical illusion. The brown square at the top of the image (another row, another column) looks lighter, the lower brown square at the bottom of the baby (fifth row, another column). In fact, the colors are the same. We know about this, but we still perceive them as different colors. Since our understanding of color is so difficult, it is important for programmers to describe all the nuances in algorithms for machine vision. Regardless of this difficulty, we have already achieved a lot in this hole.

Unit Converter articles boules edited and illustrated by Anatoly Zolotkov

Are you interested in transferring one word from one language to another? Colleagues are ready to help you. Publish food with TCTerms And by stretching a few strands you get the answer.

Then the clock frequency is the most common parameter. Therefore, it is necessary to understand these concepts. Also, within the framework of this article, we will discuss Variation of clock speeds of multi-core processors, and there are also some nuances that not everyone knows and takes care of.

Until now, developers have been betting on increasing the clock frequency, but over the course of time, the “fashion” has changed and more efforts are being made to create more sophisticated architectures, increased cache memory and the development of richer cores. no one forgets about the frequency.

What is the processor clock speed?

To begin with, you need to go through the “clock frequency” settings. The clock speed shows how much the processor can generate in one hour. Apparently, the higher the frequency, the more operations the processor can perform per hour. It is important to set the clock frequency of current processors to 1.0-4 GHz. The value is calculated by multiplying the external frequency and the base frequency by a factor. For example, the Intel Core i7 920 processor has a bus frequency of 133 MHz and a multiplier of 20, resulting in a clock frequency of 2660 MHz.

The processor frequency can be increased at home to help overclock the processor. There will be special models of processors from AMD and Intel, which are direct for overclocking by the generator itself, for example, the Black Edition from AMD and the K-series line from Intel.

I would like to point out that when purchasing a processor, the frequency should not be the main factor of choice for you, and it may even account for part of the processor’s productivity.

Increased clock speed (high-core processors)

At the same time, all segments of the market are no longer deprived of single-core processors. Well, that’s logical, even though the IT industry does not stand still, but is steadily collapsing forward by leaps and bounds. Therefore, it is necessary to clearly understand how the frequency of processors that have two or more cores is allocated.

In addition to computer forums, I noted that the reduction has been expanded to accommodate the frequency of high-core processors. I’ll immediately give an example of this incorrect statement: “A 4-core processor with a clock frequency of 3 GHz, so the total clock frequency is more modern: 4 x 3 GHz = 12 GHz, or so?” - No, not so.

I will try to explain why the total frequency of the processor cannot be understood as: number of cores X the frequency has been assigned."

I’ll point the butt: “I’m going down the road, my speed is 4 km/year. This is similar to a single-core processor on N GHz. And the axis is 4 km/year at a speed of 4 km/year, which is similar to a 4-core processor on N GHz. In the case of pedestrians, we do not care that their speed is more comparable to 4x4 = 16 km/year, we are simply saying: "4 walkers walk in Sweden 4 km/year". For this reason, we do not need to work hard on mathematical operations with the frequencies of the processor cores, but simply remember that a 4-core processor is N GHz ranges from several nuclei, the skin of which operates at the frequency N GHz".